https://coth.ui.ac.ir/ Comparative Theology en daily 1 Fri, 22 May 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Fri, 22 May 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30346.html https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29590.html The present study aims to scrutinize the role of the Bible in the understanding of Islamic narrations, employing a holistic and methodical approach. In this respect, the authors find that alteration/distortion (Tahrif) has not affected all parts of these religious texts, and “interreligious commonalities” and “partial propositional validity” may serve as the basis for understanding narrations that share the same concepts and themes. The biblical propositions are classified under three distinct categories of “pro-sentences”, “contrapositions”, and “false propositions” compared to propositions in Islamic logic. Qualitatively, such propositions are not supposed to have an independent and/or separated function as regards other criteria when it comes to the understanding of narrations. In terms of quantity, these propositions require full and subject-driven inclusion so that no single piece of data is left out. Notably, the three mentioned categorizations may be used as an analogy to “the understanding of ambiguities in narrations”, “expansion of the meaning of ambiguous Quranic verses”, and “the understanding of abstruse statements”, respectively, on the condition that the qualitative and quantitative peculiarities of each are duly taken into consideration.          https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29833.html This study offers a philosophical reassessment of cosmic unity, emphasizing the dialectical interplay between reason and matter within Stoic cosmology. It aims to elucidate the interactive dynamics between Logos and matter as the active and passive principles structuring existence. Unlike the mechanistic and chance-oriented perspectives of Epicureanism, the Stoics envisioned the cosmos as a living, self-organizing, and purposive whole. In this framework, passive matter is not a mere inert substrate but the medium through which distinctive qualities and phenomena emerge, while Logos, as an active, rational, and creative principle, orchestrates order, vitality, and motion throughout being. Pneuma, the cosmic spirit, mediates between active and passive principles, instilling life-generating and rational properties in entities and enabling the realization of individuated phenomena alongside cosmic coherence. The findings demonstrate that Stoicism constitutes a form of rational materialism, in which reason and matter are not separate substances but dynamically and dialectically intertwined. By reconceptualizing reason as an active, material, and organizing force, Stoicism enables the understanding of the cosmos as a self-organizing, purposive, and rational totality. Within this framework, each phenomenon is not merely the product of external causation but an internal manifestation of the inherent rationality of being, actualized through the continuous interaction of matter and Logos.  https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29835.html This research examines the comparative characterization of three messianic-Davidic roles (the royal dimension), Aaronic (the priestly dimension), and prophetic in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Four Gospels. The aim of the study is to clarify the different types of messianic expectations and how these roles are combined, differentiated, or reinterpreted in two distinct textual contexts. The research is based on a comparative and text-centered analysis of 17 selected versions of the Scrolls and the Four Gospels, utilizing a combination of structural text analysis and narrative examination for its analysis. Each role is compared based on what the text explicitly states, the related symbols and vocabulary, and its social and religious functions against examples from opposing texts. The findings briefly indicate: 1) The Dead Sea Scrolls tend to differentiate the roles and emphasize collective expectational structures, particularly showing notable emphasis on Davidic and Aaronic components; 2) The Four Gospels, through their narrative and Christological structure, tend to integrate or redefine the overlaps of these roles. As a result, certain priestly or prophetic elements are reinterpreted in a novel way in the context of Christ-centered narratives; and 3) The correlations and differences between the two collections highlight mixed trends of adaptation, opposition, and theological reproduction, revealing the historical and social connections between the Qumran communities and the early church. The innovation of this study lies on three levels: 1) providing a clear analytical framework for the typology of messianic roles; 2) tracing the textual transfer trends between the Scrolls and the Gospels based on structural-narrative indicators; and 3) genealogizing the theological and social implications of these representations in understanding the formation of the Messiah as foundational to early Christianity. These results offer a methodological and conceptual basis for future research in messianic studies and the history of religious thought.  https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29898.html This research aims to analyze the position of people within the Shi'a theological system by examining the principle of intellectual good and evil (ḥusn wa qubḥ ‘aqli) and its impact on the human-God relationship. This study, employing an analytical-descriptive approach, scrutinizes traditional theological texts and the opinions of Shi'a theologians. It demonstrates that while the topic of the people's status has been sporadically and less prominently addressed in Shi'a theological heritage, the principle of intellectual good and evil serves as a core axis, enabling a thorough re-examination and expansion of this subject. According to the findings, this principle, as widely held by theologians, emphasizes the autonomy of human intellect in discerning good from evil. It portrays humans as creatures with free will, who are responsible and possess inherent dignity within the Shi'a theological framework. This principle not only grounds the human-divine relationship on a rational and ethical basis but also systematically clarifies the people’s role in accepting prophecy and imamate. This perspective holds great potential for developing contemporary theological discourse in areas like moral philosophy, religious anthropology, and political theology. The rejection of racism and class systems is a direct outcome of this view, which also forms the very foundation of religious democracy. This principle can function as a new framework for reconstructing and advancing Shi'a theology in response to modern intellectual and philosophical challenges concerning the role of people and governance. By highlighting humanity's divine essence, it builds a crucial bridge between the Shi'a theological tradition and modern discussions in the fields of philosophy of religion and comparative theology. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29760.html Muraqaba is one of the foundational states (aḥwal) of the mystical path, signifying the servant’s certitude of God’s constant watch over the inner self, as well as the vigilant monitoring of one’s own deeds, behaviors, and blameworthy thoughts. This study, using a descriptive-comparative method with an analytical approach, investigates how Rumi and ʿIzz al-Din Kashani conceptualize muraqaba and explores their shared and divergent perspectives. The findings reveal that muraqaba is intimately linked with spiritual discipline (riyaḍa) and seclusion (khalwa). Kashani views muraqaba as the highest stage of khalwa, embedded within a structured spiritual hierarchy, while Rumi does not clearly delineate between these concepts, instead portraying muraqaba as a fluid, experiential state. Both thinkers affirm the necessity of self-purification, divine proximity, and transcending sensory perception toward a sacred reality; however, Kashani emphasizes adherence to Shariʿa and systematic progression, whereas Rumi adopts an intuitive, symbolic, and affective approach. These differences are particularly evident in their treatments of dietary restraint, sleep, speech, and invocation (dhikr). Ultimately, both perceive muraqaba as a means to attain truth, awareness, and divine illumination, though Rumi foregrounds its qualitative and visionary dimensions, while Kashani underscores its pedagogical and jurisprudential aspects. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29792.html This study conducts a comparative-synthetic rereading of the controversial relationship between religion and government in the thought of Baruch Spinoza and Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai. The main research question moves beyond mere comparison to ask: How can a dialogue between the two conflicting paradigms of "governance of the state over religion" and "religious governance" lead to a new perspective for constructive interaction between political and spiritual authority? The findings indicate that Spinoza, responding to the theo-political crises of his era, formulates a theory of "governance over religion" to ensure peace and security. In contrast, Allamah Tabatabai, relying on the concepts of Fitra (innate nature) and I'tibariyyat (social conventions), presents "religious governance" as a comprehensive system for human felicity. By placing these two views in a critical dialogue, this research argues that Spinoza’s realism in managing human passions can enhance the practicality of Allamah’s idealistic theory. Conversely, Allamah’s concept of Fitra can provide a transcendent and meaningful foundation for "public good" and prevent the state from becoming an end in itself. Finally, the study proposes the model of "critical cooperation" as a conceptual synthesis. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30206.html William James and Rudolf Otto offer two distinct yet complementary approaches to religious experience. James, adopting a psychological perspective, emphasizes the subjective and functional dimensions of religious experience, whereas Otto, through a phenomenological-theological approach, focuses on its objective and content-based aspects. This study examines the views of James and Otto on religious experience using a descriptive–analytical method. Its primary aim is to compare these two approaches and to clarify their respective epistemological and methodological foundations. James approaches religious experience through an empirical-psychological framework, highlighting its psychological and epistemic functions. Otto, by contrast, stresses the “non-rational” and “immediate” dimension of experience through the concept of the numinous. The study seeks to: 1) identify points of convergence between the two thinkers, 2) uncover their epistemological and methodological divergences, and 3) highlight the innovative contributions of each approach to contemporary studies of religious experience. The findings suggest that the perspectives of James and Otto are complementary. Their combined framework offers a comprehensive model in which religious experience is understood as both a psychological and a theological event—one that transforms human consciousness (James) and constitutes a direct encounter with the sacred (Otto). https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30259.html The theology of protest is a contemporary theological trend that emerged in the aftermath of the Holocaust, emphasizing humanity's right to protest and lament before God in the face of evil and suffering. This article adopts a comparative-analytical approach to examine the theoretical foundations of protest theology in both Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions, with particular focus on its manifestations in classical Islamic texts—including Quranic verses and the supplications of the Infallibles (peace be upon them). The findings indicate that protest theology in the context of illness and suffering fundamentally differs from traditional theologies of patience and passive submission. It offers instead a sacrificial, pragmatic, and hope-oriented approach that encourages patients to express their pain honestly and to direct their complaint respectfully toward God. This approach plays an effective role in strengthening spiritual conviction, alleviating psychological distress, and restoring the patient’s relationship with the Divine. Protest theology is shown to be adaptable within Islamic culture and can serve as a new strategic component in the spiritual care of patients in Muslim-majority contexts. While affirming the legitimate right to lament as part of the faith experience, the article also critiques traditional and cultural challenges to this approach and underscores the need for education and attitudinal reform to facilitate its broader acceptance. Keywords: Theology of Protest, Problem of Evil, ʿil, ʿ of Nishapur, Mushapur, ur, Theodicy. IntroductionThe problem of evil and suffering—particularly psychological suffering caused by illness—has long constituted a central challenge in theological discourse. Patients frequently experience crises of faith, anger toward God, and profound questioning of divine justice. In response, religious traditions have proposed various frameworks.Traditional theological responses centered solely on patience (ṣabr) and submission have often proven inadequate in addressing deep psycho-spiritual crises such as ruptured faith, divine anger, and existential doubt. In the 20th century, following the Holocaust, a new movement known as Theology of Protest emerged within Jewish theology and later influenced Christian thought. This theological current affirms humanity’s right—even duty—to protest and lament before God amid suffering, contrasting sharply with emphasis on silent endurance.This study investigates whether and how protest theology can be appropriated within an Islamic framework to address the psychological and spiritual distress of patients. Its main research question is: How can protest theology be understood and applied within Islamic tradition to support patients experiencing psychological suffering?Building on prior research in Jewish and Christian protest theology and emerging studies in Islamic mysticism (notably the works of ʿAṭṭār), this article tests the hypothesis that Islamic scriptural and devotional texts inherently contain—and sanction—a legitimate form of sacred complaint, one that can be systematized into a therapeutic theological model. Materials and MethodsThis research employs a comparative-analytical methodology, integrating textual analysis with theological interpretation. Primary sources include the Qurʾān, ḥadīth literature, supplications of the Imams (especially from al-Ṣaḥīfah al-Sajjādiyyah), and classical Persian mystical texts such as ʿAṭṭār Nīshābūrī’s Muṣībat-nāma. Secondary sources consist of contemporary works on protest theology in Jewish and Christian thought, alongside Islamic theological and mystical commentaries.The analysis is structured thematically, examining:Theoretical foundations of protest theologyIts historical development in the Abrahamic traditionsIts manifestations in Islamic scripture and devotional literatureIts relationship to concepts of patience (ṣabr) and complaint (shakwā)Its practical applications in patient careInsights from Islamic mysticism (ʿirfān) are incorporated to deepen the theological dimension of the discussion. Research FindingsThis study confirms its central hypothesis, demonstrating that the Islamic tradition provides a robust theological foundation for a “theology of protest,” one that can be systematically applied to support patients in crisis. The research problem—the inadequacy of passive submission alone in addressing psycho-spiritual distress—finds a compelling response within this framework.The findings of the study affirm that sacred protest is not foreign to Islam but is deeply embedded in its scriptural and devotional corpus, from the Qurʾanic lamentations of prophets to the intimate supplications of the Imams and the radical dialogues of mystics such as ʿAṭṭār.Analysis also reveals that protest within this tradition is fundamentally an act of profound faith and tawḥīd (monotheism), representing a dynamic, dialogical relationship with God rather than a rupture. It redefines the Islamic virtue of ṣabr (patience) not as silent endurance, but as perseverance that channels anguish exclusively toward God, avoiding complaint to other people. This distinction is crucial for practical application, as it sanctifies the patient's emotional expression without compromising theological principles. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, it can be said that this theology can be operationalized in spiritual care to achieve core objectives: alleviating anxiety by legitimizing emotional honesty, rebuilding the divine relationship through authentic dialogue, and nurturing active hope through empowered prayer. However, successful implementation requires navigating significant challenges, particularly the risk of misinterpretation as theological rebellion. This necessitates careful education of caregivers, patients, and families to distinguish between protest to God (sanctioned, relationship-affirming) and protest against God (rejection of divine wisdom).In conclusion, integrating the theology of protest into Islamic pastoral care offers a powerful, culturally-grounded model that bridges traditional spirituality and contemporary psychological needs. It provides a theologically coherent language for suffering—one that acknowledges pain while actively reinforcing faith. Future research should focus on developing concrete pedagogical tools and clinical guidelines to equip caregivers in applying this model effectively across diverse healthcare settings.  https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30252.html The issue of “distortion of sacred texts”, especially the Bible (the Old Testament), has long been one of the fundamental challenges in comparative theology. Going beyond traditional approaches, the present study presents a new content-theological index for measuring distortion: the theological image of woman. This approach is based on the premise that a sacred text’s view of women is a direct reflection of its theological paradigm regarding concepts such as divine justice and wisdom. Accordingly, the main question of the study is whether the image of women in the Old Testament is compatible with the principles of divine justice and the Quranic narrative or does it indicate content distortion? The hypothesis of the study is that the paradigmatic gap between the Quran and the Old Testament in the three areas of creation, sin, and law (Sharia) is evidence of spiritual distortion in the Old Testament. This study compares these three paradigms using a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the study show that the Old Testament depicts a paradigm in which women are ontologically secondary and parasitic to men (creation from a rib); redemptively responsible for original sin; and legislatively a warded and unclean being. In contrast, the Quran recognizes a paradigm based on unity of nature (one soul), shared responsibility for error and repentance, and dignity and independent legal capacity for women. This fundamental and irreconcilable contradiction, which is incompatible with theological principles of divine justice and wisdom, is independent evidence of the occurrence of content distortion in the Old Testament. This research presents a new paradigm for distortion analysis and also emphasizes the need for a critical rereading of Israelite texts.   Keywords: Women in the Quran, Women in the Old Testament, Spiritual Distortion, Comparative Theology, Divine Justice.   Introduction The question of the corruption of sacred texts, particularly the Jewish-Christian Bible, has always been a central focus in comparative theology. The traditional approach in Islamic studies has generally focused on historical and textual criticism. This study, while drawing on this tradition, proposes a novel approach: using a content-theological index titled the ‘theological image of women’ for assessing corruption. Its fundamental hypothesis is that a religious text’s view of women directly reflects its theological paradigm concerning divine justice, wisdom, and dignity. Therefore, any portrayal depicting women as subordinate, inherently sinful, or lacking independent legal capacity can be an indicator of an internal tension within that text concerning God's attributes and evidence of "spiritual distortion".   Materials and Methods This research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method within the framework of comparative kalām (theology). Data were extracted from primary sources (the Qur'an, the Old Testament), classical and contemporary Islamic exegeses, works of Jewish and Christian theologians, as well as feminist studies. The analytical criterion was the ‘compatibility of revelatory content with divine justice, wisdom, and dignity’, a principle rooted in Shi’i theological tradition. For analysis, three domains of religious anthropology were designated as analytical paradigms: The Paradigm of Creation (ontological dimension) The Paradigm of Sin (soteriological dimension) The Paradigm of Law (legal-social dimension).   Research Findings The present comparative study reveals profound gaps between the two traditions regarding the verbal image of women as an indicator of distortion, which are summarized as follows: In theParadigm of Creation, the dominant Biblical tradition (especially in the second Genesis narrative and Pauline-Augustinian theology) tends towards a "parasitic ontology": woman is portrayed as a secondary and dependent creation to man. In contrast, the Qur'an, by emphasizing a "single soul" (nafs wāḥidah) and the unity of human nature, negates any notion of secondary creation. In theParadigm of Sin, the dominant Biblical narrative presents woman as the primary agent of the Fall; a notion crystallized in the doctrine of "Original Sin". The Qur'an, by consistently employing dual grammatical forms, establishes shared responsibility and rejects any priority of blame assigned to women. In the Paradigm of Law (Sharia), the aforementioned foundations manifest in institutionalized regulations such as limitations on women's independent legal capacity, extensive purity laws, and prohibitions on their religious leadership in the Christian tradition. The Qur'an, in fundamental contrast, affirms principles of inherent human dignity, women’s independent legal personality, economic ownership, and the possibility of women serving as spiritual exemplars.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions Considering the results of the study, the mentioned gap is not merely an interpretative difference but stems from two distinct logics concerning divine justice and wisdom. It appears that many elements of the woman’s image in the Biblical tradition reflect patriarchal cultural structures that have been solidified in the form of religious doctrine. From the perspective of Islamic theology, this process constitutes "spiritual distortion".  The innovation of this research lies in transforming the "question of woman" into a methodological tool for distortion assessment. In this framework, the Qur'an appears as a "theological corrective" that presents an image consistent with divine justice and wisdom. The findings of the study also emphasize the necessity for a critical re-reading of Isrā'īliyyāt (Israelite narratives) within Islamic exegesis and for intra-traditional rethinking within Jewish-Christian theology. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30111.html The spiritual journey in Islamic wisdom aims at reaching the highest stage of perfection, which is direct intuitive knowledge of the Divine Reality. Achieving this goal demands accurate cognition, spiritual refinement, and guidance under a qualified master. This study examines the factors underlying spiritual wayfaring by comparing the foundations of Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki and Ayatollah Javadi Amoli. The research investigates how their philosophical premises shape their interpretation of spiritual stages and moral transformation, and how their mystical frameworks display shared roots despite temporal and intellectual distance. The analysis demonstrates that central elements such as rational contemplation, divine unity, ethical discipline, and existential poverty hold pivotal significance in defining the structure of the mystical path. Methodologically, this work adopts a descriptive–analytical approach and relies on primary mystical texts and philosophical sources. Based on this comparative reading, Dashtaki divides spiritual progress into preliminary preparations, principal foundations, and complementary perfections, each associated with specific virtues and psychological states. Conversely, Javadi Amoli grounds spiritual ascent in poverty (faqr), guardianship (wilāyah), and the fourfold journeys, culminating in unity and annihilation. Although the two scholars differ in emphasis—particularly regarding the social dimension of spirituality in Javadi Amoli’s thought—the similarities suggest continuity across intellectual traditions. The study concludes that their perspectives converge on a unified theocentric model in which mystical insight is inseparable from philosophical reasoning.   Keywords: Knowledge, Wayfaring, Station, Javadi Amoli, Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki.     Introduction A central enterprise in Islamic philosophy and mysticism is to interpret spiritual wayfaring not merely as a personal ethical effort but as a disciplined process grounded in ontological certainty and epistemic orientation. The present study seeks to compare Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki and Ayatollah Javadi Amoli in terms of the foundational elements that define spiritual advancement in their thought. Although the two thinkers lived in distant intellectual environments, the underlying continuity of Islamic metaphysical discourse creates a fertile ground for examining their shared assumptions. Accordingly, this research aims to understand how foundations such as rational demonstration, illumination, anthropology, and the nature of existence influence the structure of the mystical path. Despite the abundance of literature on the mystical teachings of Javadi Amoli, studies presenting a structured comparison between him and Dashtaki are scarce. Moreover, due to historical and textual limitations, Dashtaki’s writings are relatively scattered and occasionally attributed to later scholars. This has constrained accurate scholarly reconstruction but has simultaneously made the comparative perspective more valuable. The significance of the research is twofold. First, from a theoretical perspective, it highlights the continuity of Islamic wisdom from classical Peripatetic philosophy through Illuminationism to contemporary Transcendent Theosophy. Second, at a practical level, the comparison helps clarify how intellectual principles translate into moral conduct and spiritual transformation. Thus, exploring the philosophical premises behind wayfaring provides insights into the dynamic interplay between metaphysical knowledge and ethical refinement in Islamic spirituality.   Materials and Methods Considering its objectives, this study adopts a fundamental research design grounded in descriptive–analytical reasoning. Data collection was conducted through a classical library-based method, including printed manuscripts, edited texts, thematic studies, and academic databases. After extracting source material, the content was systematically categorized according to major themes such as ontology, epistemology, anthropology, and practical mysticism. The research proceeds by coding conceptual indicators, classifying the terms used by the two scholars, and identifying correspondences between their metaphysical assumptions and their spiritual frameworks. After establishing these correlations, the study applies comparative interpretation, assessing similarities and differences regarding the stages, conditions, and ultimate goals of wayfaring. Thus, the methodological framework integrates historical reading, conceptual reconstruction, critical comparison, and thematic synthesis.   Research Findings The comparative analysis reveals that both Dashtaki and Javadi Amoli perceive spiritual wayfaring as a structured ascent that integrates psychological reformation, metaphysical realization, and ethical purification. Dashtaki proposes a tripartite structure comprising preparatory virtues, principal foundations, and complementary achievements. Key notions such as resolve, sincerity, worship, seclusion, and unity are presented not merely as moral traits but as existential transformations rooted in ontological unity and illuminative knowledge. His classification draws heavily on Peripatetic reasoning while simultaneously admitting illuminative intuition, thereby merging rational discipline with experiential unveiling. In contrast, Javadi Amoli frames wayfaring through an integrated view of anthropology and ontology, especially emphasizing poverty, guardianship, and the four symbolic journeys. His analysis differs in highlighting social and communal dimensions, situating spiritual advancement within the civilizational mission of divine monotheism. Although he relies on earlier Sufi heritage, his approach is deeply affected by the principles of Transcendent Philosophy, particularly gradational existence and intellectual witnessing. Consequently, while differences in vocabulary and emphasis occur, the convergence of both thinkers lies in their view of spiritual realization as a movement toward unity, annihilation in God, and the harmonization of reason and mystical experience.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings of this research indicate that the spiritual teachings of both Dashtaki and Javadi Amoli emerge from systems in which metaphysics provides the structural foundation of moral practice. Dashtaki, as an intermediary figure between Peripatetic and Illuminationist traditions, paved the intellectual ground for synthesizing rational inquiry with mystical unveiling. His model of wayfaring incorporates notions of self-transformation, inner witnessing, unity, and existential refinement. Javadi Amoli, inheriting the philosophical legacy of Mullā Ṣadrā, expands this synthesis through rational precision and metaphysical argumentation, while simultaneously grounding spiritual progress in social responsibility and theological guardianship. From a comparative viewpoint, their shared insistence on revelation-centered certainty demonstrates that Islamic mysticism is not autonomous from philosophy but is structured by it at its deepest levels. Philosophy shapes definitions of human identity, spiritual capacity, and the ontological hierarchy leading toward divine union. Mysticism, in turn, transforms philosophical propositions into lived experience and existential realization. Therefore, this research shows that both thinkers ultimately arrive at the same integrative horizon: rationally grounded spirituality, in which the soul ascends through graded existential intensification until achieving unity, witnessing, and annihilation. The convergence of two different historical figures thus reflects the persistent logic of Islamic wisdom in harmonizing intellect, experience, and revelation. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29943.html Religion has always been regarded as one of the fundamental pillars of legitimacy and governance in post-revolutionary Iran. Consequently, various theoretical and discursive efforts have emerged to understand, interpret, and reexamine religion, among which two major currents—“traditional Islam” and “religious intellectualism”—hold a prominent place. This study focuses on the ideas of two influential thinkers, Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah Yazdi and Mostafa Malekian, as key representatives of these two intellectual streams, aiming to explore and analyze the components and mechanisms underlying their understanding of religion. The research adopts a qualitative methodology based on Attride-Stirling’s three-stage thematic analysis, using excerpts from speeches and written works by these two figures to extract the core themes. The findings reveal that Malekian’s thought emphasizes three overarching themes: “the variability of religious knowledge,” “the rationalization of religious beliefs,” and “ethics and spirituality as the foundation of religiosity.” In contrast, Ayatollah Mesbah highlights three central components: “the necessity of explaining religious beliefs,” “the comprehensiveness of religion,” and “faith-based obligation.” This divergence reflects a fundamental difference in the epistemological, methodological, and teleological foundations of their respective approaches to understanding religion. Keywords: Understanding Religion, Religious Intellectualism, Traditional Islam, Misbah Yazdi, Malekian, Qualitative Approach. IntroductionIn contemporary Iranian intellectual discourse, religion continues to serve as a foundational pillar for social legitimacy and governance, shaping both normative frameworks and individual ethical conduct. The perspectives of key thinkers such as Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah Yazdi and Mostafa Malekian illustrate the tension between preserving traditional religious frameworks and adapting religious understanding to the epistemic and ethical demands of modernity. While Mesbah emphasizes the comprehensive and duty-bound nature of religion rooted in scriptural authority, Malekian foregrounds the variability, rationalization, and ethical-spiritual dimensions of religiosity, reflecting the influence of modern philosophical thought.Examining these divergent approaches provides insight into how religion is interpreted, justified, and enacted in contemporary Iran, and highlights the broader dynamics between traditional and reformist currents in shaping social and political norms. Materials and MethodsThis study employs a qualitative thematic analysis. Through identifying basic, organizing, and global themes, the content of speeches, writings, and secondary sources related to Mesbah’s and Malekian’s thought was systematically analyzed.The process involved:In-depth study of primary and secondary sources,Extraction of basic themes from their statements and works,Categorization of these into organizing themes, andSynthesizing global themes to map the conceptual frameworks underlying their understanding of religion.This approach enables a structured comparison of their epistemological and normative frameworks. Research FindingsThe analysis of the primary and secondary sources revealed distinct conceptual patterns in how each thinker approaches religion. While both engage deeply with the philosophical, ethical, and social dimensions of religiosity, their frameworks differ fundamentally in epistemology, methodology, and priorities. The following sections outline the core themes that characterize Mesbah Yazdi’s and Malekian’s understandings of religion: Mesbah’s Understanding of ReligionNecessity of explicating religious beliefs: Defending religion is achieved through both intra-religious (scriptural and traditional) and extra-religious (rational and philosophical) reasoning. Mesbah emphasizes religious rationality and the struggle against innovations (bid‘a), viewing reason as complementary to revelation.Comprehensiveness of religion: Religion, in his view, encompasses all aspects of human life—individual, social, doctrinal, and ethical—and contains both fixed and flexible rulings. Changing circumstances affect applications, not principles.Faith and duty: Faith is inseparable from religious duty. The relationship between rights and duties is reciprocal, and justice is defined through their balance. Religious obligations form the basis for moral action and the realization of both individual and collective good. Malekian’s Understanding of ReligionChangeability of religious knowledge: Religious knowledge is historically and experientially conditioned. With modernity, epistemological shifts have turned religion into a more personal and functional matter.Rationalization of religious beliefs: Religious beliefs are acceptable only if rationally justified. Malekian highlights the fundamental distinction between traditional rationality and modern rationality as a source of epistemic transformation.Ethics and spirituality as the foundation of religiosity: Unlike traditional approaches centered on divine command and law, Malekian grounds religiosity in ethics and inner spirituality. He sees spirituality as compatible with modernity and capable of providing personal meaning and psychological well-being. Discussion of Results and ConclusionThe findings of the study reveal that Mesbah’s model of religious understanding is anchored in preserving the traditional framework of religion. Reason complements but does not replace revelation; faith is tied to obligation; and religion encompasses all spheres of life through a combination of fixed principles and contextual applications. In contrast, Malekian builds his framework on epistemic transformation, modern rationality, and personal spirituality. He views traditional religion as unable to respond adequately to the needs of modern individuals and proposes rationalized spirituality as an alternative.The comparison highlights that the gap between traditional and modern approaches is not merely rhetorical but rooted in epistemological sources, concepts of rationality, the role of duty, and the social function of religion. Mesbah’s thought aims to preserve and defend a fixed religious structure, whereas Malekian seeks to reinterpret religion as an individual, rational, and ethical-spiritual experience within modernity. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29978.html According to the evidentialist approach, one’s final position on a proposition emerges from the balance between supporting and opposing evidence, and justifying that proposition requires considering (or weighing) all available evidence. Unlike theists and atheists—who interpret evidence to favor their own beliefs — the agnostic regards the evidence as neutral, whether due to ambiguity about what counts as evidence, the failure of individual items to establish the claim, or the equal weight of opposing evidence. In this context, “evidence” typically refers to public evidence accessible to all. Occasionally, however, private and non-shareable evidence may arise in favor of one side. The key question is whether such private evidence can challenge or outweigh public evidence and thereby lift the suspension of judgment. Based on this study’s findings, private evidence can be valid and effective in epistemic dilemmas that incline toward agnosticism, provided two conditions are met: it possesses independent epistemic grounding (evidence supporting evidence), and the opposing public evidence is not so overwhelmingly strong as to create a perfect symmetry.   Keywords: Private Evidence; Agnosticism; Suspension of Epistemic Judgment; Theism; Atheism; Religious Experience.   Introduction The dominant approach in religious epistemology holds that evidence ultimately determines the outcome of debates, with justification resting on the evidence one possesses while rejecting contrary evidence. Theists and atheists both claim that evidence conclusively supports their own stance. In contrast, the epistemic agnostic suspends judgment—often because of uncertainty about what qualifies as evidence, flaws in individual evidential items, or balanced weights among conflicting evidence. Although “evidence” normally denotes public, widely accessible proof, certain private evidence may persuade only a single individual or a limited circle of epistemic agents. This study explores whether and how private evidence can break the stalemate caused by evenly balanced public evidence. While agnosticism has been addressed in recent epistemological debates in the West and has seen limited discussion in Iran, the role of private evidence has not received systematic attention as a central focus. By examining the assumptions underlying agnosticism, the present research clarifies how private evidence may help one escape epistemic skepticism about God’s existence. It analyzes the types of evidence and their roles in two contexts—epistemic disagreement and suspension of judgment—and then establishes the conditions under which private evidence attains validity when it conflicts with public evidence.   Materials and Methods The current study employs an analytical research methodology, examining arguments for the epistemic validity of private evidence both under ordinary conditions and in cases of conflict with public evidence.   Research Findings The findings of the study show that four possibilities arise regarding the epistemic warrant of private evidence: Valid in ordinary circumstances but invalid in conflict. Valid in both ordinary and conflict situations. Invalid in both ordinary and conflict scenarios. Invalid in ordinary circumstances but valid when in conflict. These scenarios are theoretically conceivable, though not all have clear proponents among religious epistemologists. Various proposals have been made to address these possibilities. On the one hand, agnosticism produces no decisive conclusion and leaves us in epistemic indecision, which we ought to escape. On the other hand, privatizing epistemic structures and processes —grounding belief on factors beyond public scrutiny—undermines the accuracy of our epistemic representations. A balanced approach must reconcile these concerns. This study demonstrates that private evidence can resolve the problem of epistemic suspension if it meets two conditions: It enjoys its own independent epistemic support, ensuring it is not merely subjective. Competing public evidence is not so compelling as to undermine confidence in one’s private deliverances.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions Considering the results of the present study, private evidence consists of data or testimony that is not publicly accessible and derives from an individual’s personal epistemic faculties. Its legitimacy is contested both under normal conditions and when it clashes with public evidence. Ordinarily, private testimony may be deemed valid if it can be reconciled with established public epistemic channels, for example, interpreting religious experience as a form of sensory or emotional perception. When public evidence for and against God’s existence is evenly balanced, the debate can slide into suspension of judgment—an agnostic impasse that is epistemically unsatisfactory. Introducing private evidence reshapes this impasse: evidence can no longer be regarded as wholly neutral, and the agent becomes fully justified in acting based on their private conviction. This position is defensible. Beyond the general warrant for private evidence like religious experience, such evidence is especially valuable in an epistemic stalemate. Individuals may legitimately rely on private evidence when two conditions hold: it has its own epistemic grounding, and the opposing public evidence is not overwhelmingly strong. In the specific case of belief in God, objections to theism are not so decisive as to weaken both public and private supports for belief. Moreover, the imperative to avoid unbelief—and its attendant epistemic shortcomings—further underscores the prudence of crediting private evidence when public and private testimonies diverge. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30116.html Apostasy has been a controversial issue in many religions, particularly among monotheistic faiths. This study investigates the historical and jurisprudential aspects of apostasy in Zoroastrianism and Islam, drawing upon Pahlavi sources from the Sassanian era and early Islamic centuries, as well as classical Islamic jurisprudence. Texts such as Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān, Vendidad, Pahlavi narratives, and early Islamic legal writings discuss the causes of apostasy, worldly and otherworldly punishments, property rights, guardianship, marital bonds, and conditions for repentance. The study highlights similarities, such as the ultimate punishment of death and ritual impurity, and divergences, including grace periods for returning to the faith, property distribution, and treatment of female apostates. Using a descriptive-analytical methodology and library-based resources, the study first examines apostasy in Zoroastrianism, then in Islam, and finally provides a comparative perspective on these traditions. The analysis demonstrates both the continuity and divergence in legal and religious thought concerning apostasy across time and cultures. Keywords: Apostasy in Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrian Jurisprudence and Law, Apostasy in Islam, Apostasy, Sassanian Era.IntroductionApostasy, or the renunciation of one’s faith, has historically been regarded as a serious transgression in many religious traditions. In ancient Iran, Zoroastrianism provided structured legal and religious frameworks to address apostasy, particularly during the Sassanian period, when Zoroastrian priests (mobeds) were often involved in judicial processes. Early Pahlavi texts like Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān and later Zoroastrian narratives illustrate the legal and ritual dimensions of apostasy, including worldly punishment, purification rites, property confiscation, and marital consequences. These texts reflect a response to both internal religious challenges and external pressures following the Islamic conquest of Persia, demonstrating an effort to codify and preserve Zoroastrian traditions.In parallel, Islamic jurisprudence addresses apostasy extensively, emphasizing both spiritual and societal dimensions. The Qur’an and classical jurists outline punishment, procedural safeguards, property implications, and gender-specific regulations for apostates. By comparing these frameworks, the study aims to explore points of convergence and divergence between Zoroastrian and Islamic approaches, assessing how cultural, religious, and legal contexts shaped their treatment of apostasy. This research contributes to understanding the historical development of religious law and its ethical, social, and legal implications. Materials and MethodsThis study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, relying on library and archival resources. Primary sources include Sassanian-era Zoroastrian legal texts (Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān, Vendidad), Pahlavi narratives, and early Islamic jurisprudential writings. Relevant secondary literature and scholarly analyses were also consulted to contextualize the findings. Information was systematically collected, categorized, and compared, focusing on legal rulings, social implications, and doctrinal interpretations of apostasy in both religions. The methodology ensures that comparative insights are grounded in historical evidence and scholarly interpretation. Research FindingsA comparative examination of apostasy in Zoroastrianism and Islam reveals significant similarities and differences in legal and ritual treatments. In both traditions, apostasy is punishable by death, yet the grace period for repentance differs: one year in Zoroastrianism and three days in Islamic jurisprudence. Apostates are considered ritually impure in both religions, although Zoroastrian texts hold that the corpse of the apostate is not impure, contrasting with Islamic concepts of spiritual impurity. Property confiscation also varies, with Zoroastrian law assigning seized assets to the first Zoroastrian claimant, while Islamic law distributes property to heirs or the public treasury depending on sect and timing.Regarding women, Zoroastrian law treats male and female apostates equally, whereas Islamic law provides nuanced procedures for female apostates, including imprisonment and opportunities for repentance. Apostasy dissolves marital bonds in both religions, although the specifics of guardianship and family law differ. Finally, maturity is a common condition for apostasy, but age thresholds vary between traditions and among Islamic legal schools. These findings highlight both the shared ethical concerns and culturally distinct legal solutions surrounding apostasy in Zoroastrian and Islamic contexts. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that while Zoroastrianism and Islam share common principles regarding apostasy—such as punishment, impurity, and marital consequences—differences arise from historical, cultural, and theological contexts. The Sassanian-era Zoroastrian texts reflect a legal system deeply intertwined with religious authority and social control, emphasizing ritual observance and preservation of faith. In contrast, Islamic jurisprudence combines divine guidance with codified legal mechanisms, providing varying interpretations across sects and schools.The comparative analysis underscores how both traditions sought to protect community cohesion, religious identity, and moral order. Zoroastrian texts illustrate adaptation to post-conquest realities, reinforcing internal religious norms, while Islamic jurisprudence demonstrates flexibility within a broader legal-theological framework. By examining apostasy in these two traditions, the study provides insights into the evolution of religious law, highlighting continuity and divergence in ethical, social, and legal approaches. Ultimately, the research contributes to a nuanced understanding of apostasy as a complex intersection of faith, law, and society across historical periods. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_27511.html One of the issues for humans has been the evolutionary and Transformational dynamics of progress, In any society, both micro and macro. Therefore the actual study and analysis about the movement of societies and cultures along with their roots, causes and stages of modernization and progress has always been explored by sociologists and cultural scholars. In this regard, the study, analysis and review of the transformation in Mecca society before the Qur'an descends from ignorance to the Quranic culture can also suggest experiences, patterns and principles and methods for the development of human societies; Because the Qur'an and the Prophet of Islam made a fundamental change in the beliefs and practices, culture and imagination and also the language and literature of the ignorant Arabs; With an unmistakable movement in worldviews, ethics and customs through the channel of literal and semantic changes. This divine movement created doubt In the polytheistic system and the irresponsibility of Makian By rejecting the materialist foundations of culture And modified the approach of the Qur'an's age-old audience to the origin and resurrection of being. This study aims to scrutiny comparatively the two discourses of ignorance and Islam And consider how the transition from the ignorant to the Qur'anic period; Relying on the anthropological patterns found in the daily lives of Arabs in Mecca. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29648.html Abstract The Ahl al-Haqq religion emerged in the early centuries of the Islamic calendar in western Iran among the Kurdish people. While this religion has its roots in a sect that split from Islam, some of its teachings were influenced by ancient religions and pre-Islamic Abrahamic religions such as Christianity. The followers of this religion believe in one God and its fundamental basis is the manifestation of God. This article has answered the question of what issues does the Ahl al-Haqq religion have in common with Christianity? The research findings have shown that the Ahl al-Haqq religion, based on the agency of God's manifestation, considers prominent humans as manifestations of the essence (grace) of the Almighty and attributes divine attributes to humans who are manifestations of the essence (grace), who are considered to be the manifestation of God. This idea has been influenced by the attitude of Christians who have considered Jesus Christ (AS) to be one of the three divine beings and have given divine attributes to Jesus Christ (AS). This article, using a descriptive-analytical method, library and field methods, and relying on the primary and original texts of the Ahl al-Haqq, examines the manifestation of man and the quality of man's perfection in the Ahl al-Haqq religion and Christianity. Another goal of this article is to examine the teachings and conditions of man's perfection in the Ahl al-Haqq and Christianity. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29878.html Balanced Rationality and the Foundations of Rational Development in the Thought of Allameh Tabataba’i Abstract This study addresses the gap in systematic accounts of rational development by examining its foundations within the thought of Allameh Tabataba’i. It investigates how his model responds to the challenges posed by modern conceptions of rationality. Employing an analytical-hermeneutical method focused on Tabataba’i’s philosophical and exegetical works, the research argues that rational growth is a systematic process involving the elevation of reason from perceiving levels of being to attaining intuitive intellect (‘aql-e shuhūdī). This progression is grounded in the hierarchy of being, the correspondence between reason and reality, causality, and the teleology of existence. The findings propose a framework of “balanced rationality,” which integrates theoretical, practical, and intuitive intellect. In this model, reason is not merely analytical but is a faculty for existential perfection. Crucially, revelation and divine guidance are situated within the horizon of this expanded rationality, acting as its ultimate catalyst. Consequently, Tabataba’i’s thought offers a comprehensive and dynamic structure where rational development, directed by revelation, culminates in teleological human perfection. This model is presented as a valuable resource for engaging with the limitations of modern rationality. Keywords: Allameh Tabataba’i; Rational Development; Balanced Rationality; Evolutionary Intellect; Revelation https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29891.html Abstract This study critically examines the emerging phenomenon of secular spirituality within the context of contemporary Iran, a society historically characterized by deep-rooted religious adherence. While traditional, Sharia-based religiosity has long shaped Iranian identity, current trends suggest a transformation in religious observance that no longer fully satisfies many believers. This shift has paved the way for the rise of "modern spirituality," emphasizing a blend of Eastern religious heritage and Western rational traditions to offer a novel, meaning-oriented approach to transcendence. Drawing on the insights of Professor Mostafa Malekian, this research elucidates the origins and historical context of modern spirituality in Iran and explores the factors contributing to its emergence. The analysis reveals that this modern paradigm, by largely overlooking supernatural dimensions and the transcendent aspects of human identity, presents fundamental limitations. Consequently, the study concludes that secular interpretations of spirituality may ultimately fall short in fulfilling the profound spiritual needs of contemporary Iranians. Keywords: Religiosity; Secular spirituality; Rationality; Modernity; Worldliness https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30144.html Contemporary research on spiritual intelligence (SI) finds a rich parallel in Mulla Sadra’s concept of the "instinct of wisdom", which this study re-conceptualizes as "wisdom intelligence" (WI). Using a descriptive-analytical method, this study aims to shed light on the multiple dimensions of SI. In this study, criteria such as cross-checking, suddenness, spontaneity, unpredictability, correspondence with distant or future events, and consistency with reason, religion, and ethics are examined. This research identifies two new, essential components of SI. The first is the ability to navigate the complex, non-linear path of spiritual growth, recognizing both obstacles and catalysts. The second is the critical capacity to assess the authenticity of mystical inspirations and intuitions that are central to genuine spiritual experiences. Mulla Sadra’s philosophy provides specific criteria for this assessment, including the mystical experience’s consistency with reason and ethics, and its confirmation by a realized sage—a principle rooted in Sufi traditions like the documentation of spiritual biographies (tadhkira) as well as the preservation of lineages of authorization (silsila of ijazat). This research offers fresh insight into the intricate interplay between contemporary discourse on the epistemic value of mystical experiences and new components of spiritual intelligence, bridging Islamic philosophy with mystical education. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30271.html Protestant ethics and theology in Max Weber’s thought provide a foundation for analyzing the question of why capitalist economy emerged in a specific time and place—namely, Western Europe and America in the 18th and 19th centuries. To analyze this historical phenomenon, Weber employs a unique methodology that combines positivist empiricism with the conceptualism of German idealism. This methodological duality also manifests at the theoretical level, ultimately driving Weber’s thought toward a dialectical framework. This dialectic intensifies the tension between, on one side, Protestant theology and ethics oriented toward otherworldly salvation, and on the other, an economy and instrumental rationality oriented toward the material world. Our study in this article aims to show how Protestant ethics, originally aimed at spiritual salvation, dialectically leads to an economic rationality centered on capital accumulation. Furthermore, we examine how this accumulation of material wealth gradually pushes Protestant Christian theology toward creeping secularism—a secularism ultimately characterized by instrumental and bureaucratic rationality, focused on power and material wealth. This material rationality, in turn, dialectically gives rise to irrationality, which manifests itself in the form of the charismatic personality. The conceptual stages of this dialectic are the very ideal types that Weber uses for historical analysis and interpretation. While he emphasizes their idealistic and utopian nature, Weber also attempts to subject these concepts to empirical testing in a positivist manner. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30344.html This study employs an analytical-critical approach to the book “The Other Prophet” by Khurshideh and Stosch, offering a critical reexamination of the historicist perspective on Quranic Christology within the context of the seventh century CE. The significance lies in the authors’ reliance on historical and Judeo-Christian theological frameworks, portraying the Quranic depiction of Jesus (ʿĪsā) as a reflection of Prophet Muhammad’s interaction with emerging divergent sects in the Arabian Peninsula. They further characterize the Quranic rhetorical style as confined to oral traditions lacking independent identity. The central question addresses whether the Quranic image of Jesus possesses theological autonomy and a distinctive rhetorical style, contrary to historicist views, and critiques such reductionist approaches to his persona. The study aims to provide a framework for understanding and affirming the Quran’s theological and rhetorical independence in dialogue with Christian theology, thereby challenging reductionist tendencies in religious scholarship. Utilizing an interdisciplinary methodology grounded in analytical-critical study, historical criticism, and Quranic stylistics, the findings reveal that historicist approaches diminish Quranic concepts and overlook its novel, autonomous style. In contrast, the Quran explicitly critiques extrahistorical Christian misconceptions and elucidates Jesus’ prophetic role, presenting terms such as kalima (word), āyah (sign), and mubārak (blessed) as markers of his exalted divine status. The affirmation of the Gospel as a divinely revealed scripture, along with the call for the convergence of Abrahamic faiths, emerges as another salient Qur’anic element within this framework. Accordingly, the Quran maintains theological and rhetorical independence, offering a novel, extrahistorical portrayal of Jesus. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30345.html This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach to examine how contemporary theology is reflected and transformed in religious games and toys. In recent decades, as media and consumer culture have expanded, religion has increasingly moved beyond traditional institutions and rituals, manifesting itself in commodities, entertainment, and everyday practices. Within this context, religious games and dolls serve as tangible expressions of these transformations. The main objective of this article is to analyze this phenomenon on two interconnected levels: first, to interpret religious play as a continuation of ritual and educational traditions, recreating the sacred through bodily, symbolic, and family experiences; and second, to explore religious play as a manifestation of consumer theology, in which faith is commodified and theological meanings are transformed into enjoyable and purchasable experiences. Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks of play and ritual (Huizinga, Caillois, Turner) and the commodification of religion (Baudrillard, Miller), the study demonstrates that religious games operate as a double-edged phenomenon. On one hand, they serve as tools for moral education, faith transmission, and identity formation; on the other, they contribute to the desacralization and superficialization of belief, reflecting the emergence of a playful and consumer-oriented theology. Ultimately, the findings reveal that religious games and toys mirror the evolution of lived theology in the age of media and the marketplace—an era in which the boundaries between faith, imagination, and consumption are increasingly blurred. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30359.html the central question of the present article is: How is the theory of intertextuality applied in the interpretation of sacred texts, with a focus on the Qur'an and the Bible? Employing a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, this study concludes that, given the Qur'an's numerous references to the narratives of previous prophets and its shared themes with the Bible, the method of intertextual interpretation can lead to a richer and more precise reading of Qur'anic verses. In this arena, topics such as the Promised One, the Seal of the Prophets (peace be upon him), divine ordinances, ethical narratives, historical accounts, and more can be addressed. A practical example of this method is provided through the interpretation of verse 69 of Surah Al-Ahzab and its connection to the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament. Ultimately, the article concludes that intertextuality is a valuable tool for comparative studies; however, its uncritical application can lead to hermeneutical challenges. Therefore, in interpreting the Qur'an and sacred texts based on intertextuality, adherence to all the tenets and foundations of intertextuality is neither necessary nor sometimes even conducive, as it can be disruptive. Methodological critiques of intertextuality are also noted. Among other results, the study presents a novel categorization of the types of intertextuality between the Qur'an and the Bible. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30408.html Relying on a “metaphysical and structural comparative” approach, the present study explores the mode of expansion and manifestation of the Absolute within two independent epistemological horizons: the mystical school of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi in Islam and the ancient Upanishadic texts in Hinduism. In Ibn Arabi’s intellectual system, “Allah,” as the all-comprehensive Divine Name, serves as the point of connection between the strictly Unseen Essence and the world of multiplicity, and the reality of the Truth permeates existence through three levels of manifestation (Essential, Nominal, and Active) and via the interplay of the Attributes of Jamāl and Jalāl. Parallel to this structural formulation, the Upanishadic texts (particularly the Maitri Upanishad), while insisting on the fundamental principle of the peerless unity of “Brahman,” formulate the Hindu “Trimurti” (Brahmã, Viṣṇu, and Śiva) not as independent entities, but as functional manifestations and instruments of that Absolute Truth’s will for cosmic creation, preservation, and dissolution. The objective of this article is to comparatively analyze these structures to demonstrate how both religions, despite their distinct historical and cultural origins, have resorted to a similar mediatory concept to explain the logic of transition from the “Absolute Unity of Essence” to the “restricted multiplicity of acts.”