https://coth.ui.ac.ir/ Comparative Theology en daily 1 Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30445.html https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30817.html https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30259.html The theology of protest is a contemporary theological trend that emerged in the aftermath of the Holocaust, emphasizing humanity's right to protest and lament before God in the face of evil and suffering. This article adopts a comparative-analytical approach to examine the theoretical foundations of protest theology in both Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions, with particular focus on its manifestations in classical Islamic texts—including Quranic verses and the supplications of the Infallibles (peace be upon them). The findings indicate that protest theology in the context of illness and suffering fundamentally differs from traditional theologies of patience and passive submission. It offers instead a sacrificial, pragmatic, and hope-oriented approach that encourages patients to express their pain honestly and to direct their complaint respectfully toward God. This approach plays an effective role in strengthening spiritual conviction, alleviating psychological distress, and restoring the patient’s relationship with the Divine. Protest theology is shown to be adaptable within Islamic culture and can serve as a new strategic component in the spiritual care of patients in Muslim-majority contexts. While affirming the legitimate right to lament as part of the faith experience, the article also critiques traditional and cultural challenges to this approach and underscores the need for education and attitudinal reform to facilitate its broader acceptance. Keywords: Theology of Protest, Problem of Evil, ʿil, ʿ of Nishapur, Mushapur, ur, Theodicy. IntroductionThe problem of evil and suffering—particularly psychological suffering caused by illness—has long constituted a central challenge in theological discourse. Patients frequently experience crises of faith, anger toward God, and profound questioning of divine justice. In response, religious traditions have proposed various frameworks.Traditional theological responses centered solely on patience (ṣabr) and submission have often proven inadequate in addressing deep psycho-spiritual crises such as ruptured faith, divine anger, and existential doubt. In the 20th century, following the Holocaust, a new movement known as Theology of Protest emerged within Jewish theology and later influenced Christian thought. This theological current affirms humanity’s right—even duty—to protest and lament before God amid suffering, contrasting sharply with emphasis on silent endurance.This study investigates whether and how protest theology can be appropriated within an Islamic framework to address the psychological and spiritual distress of patients. Its main research question is: How can protest theology be understood and applied within Islamic tradition to support patients experiencing psychological suffering?Building on prior research in Jewish and Christian protest theology and emerging studies in Islamic mysticism (notably the works of ʿAṭṭār), this article tests the hypothesis that Islamic scriptural and devotional texts inherently contain—and sanction—a legitimate form of sacred complaint, one that can be systematized into a therapeutic theological model. Materials and MethodsThis research employs a comparative-analytical methodology, integrating textual analysis with theological interpretation. Primary sources include the Qurʾān, ḥadīth literature, supplications of the Imams (especially from al-Ṣaḥīfah al-Sajjādiyyah), and classical Persian mystical texts such as ʿAṭṭār Nīshābūrī’s Muṣībat-nāma. Secondary sources consist of contemporary works on protest theology in Jewish and Christian thought, alongside Islamic theological and mystical commentaries.The analysis is structured thematically, examining:Theoretical foundations of protest theologyIts historical development in the Abrahamic traditionsIts manifestations in Islamic scripture and devotional literatureIts relationship to concepts of patience (ṣabr) and complaint (shakwā)Its practical applications in patient careInsights from Islamic mysticism (ʿirfān) are incorporated to deepen the theological dimension of the discussion. Research FindingsThis study confirms its central hypothesis, demonstrating that the Islamic tradition provides a robust theological foundation for a “theology of protest,” one that can be systematically applied to support patients in crisis. The research problem—the inadequacy of passive submission alone in addressing psycho-spiritual distress—finds a compelling response within this framework.The findings of the study affirm that sacred protest is not foreign to Islam but is deeply embedded in its scriptural and devotional corpus, from the Qurʾanic lamentations of prophets to the intimate supplications of the Imams and the radical dialogues of mystics such as ʿAṭṭār.Analysis also reveals that protest within this tradition is fundamentally an act of profound faith and tawḥīd (monotheism), representing a dynamic, dialogical relationship with God rather than a rupture. It redefines the Islamic virtue of ṣabr (patience) not as silent endurance, but as perseverance that channels anguish exclusively toward God, avoiding complaint to other people. This distinction is crucial for practical application, as it sanctifies the patient's emotional expression without compromising theological principles. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, it can be said that this theology can be operationalized in spiritual care to achieve core objectives: alleviating anxiety by legitimizing emotional honesty, rebuilding the divine relationship through authentic dialogue, and nurturing active hope through empowered prayer. However, successful implementation requires navigating significant challenges, particularly the risk of misinterpretation as theological rebellion. This necessitates careful education of caregivers, patients, and families to distinguish between protest to God (sanctioned, relationship-affirming) and protest against God (rejection of divine wisdom).In conclusion, integrating the theology of protest into Islamic pastoral care offers a powerful, culturally-grounded model that bridges traditional spirituality and contemporary psychological needs. It provides a theologically coherent language for suffering—one that acknowledges pain while actively reinforcing faith. Future research should focus on developing concrete pedagogical tools and clinical guidelines to equip caregivers in applying this model effectively across diverse healthcare settings.  https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30111.html The spiritual journey in Islamic wisdom aims at reaching the highest stage of perfection, which is direct intuitive knowledge of the Divine Reality. Achieving this goal demands accurate cognition, spiritual refinement, and guidance under a qualified master. This study examines the factors underlying spiritual wayfaring by comparing the foundations of Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki and Ayatollah Javadi Amoli. The research investigates how their philosophical premises shape their interpretation of spiritual stages and moral transformation, and how their mystical frameworks display shared roots despite temporal and intellectual distance. The analysis demonstrates that central elements such as rational contemplation, divine unity, ethical discipline, and existential poverty hold pivotal significance in defining the structure of the mystical path. Methodologically, this work adopts a descriptive–analytical approach and relies on primary mystical texts and philosophical sources. Based on this comparative reading, Dashtaki divides spiritual progress into preliminary preparations, principal foundations, and complementary perfections, each associated with specific virtues and psychological states. Conversely, Javadi Amoli grounds spiritual ascent in poverty (faqr), guardianship (wilāyah), and the fourfold journeys, culminating in unity and annihilation. Although the two scholars differ in emphasis—particularly regarding the social dimension of spirituality in Javadi Amoli’s thought—the similarities suggest continuity across intellectual traditions. The study concludes that their perspectives converge on a unified theocentric model in which mystical insight is inseparable from philosophical reasoning. Keywords: Knowledge, Wayfaring, Station, Javadi Amoli, Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki.  IntroductionA central enterprise in Islamic philosophy and mysticism is to interpret spiritual wayfaring not merely as a personal ethical effort but as a disciplined process grounded in ontological certainty and epistemic orientation. The present study seeks to compare Ghiyāth al-Din Dashtaki and Ayatollah Javadi Amoli in terms of the foundational elements that define spiritual advancement in their thought. Although the two thinkers lived in distant intellectual environments, the underlying continuity of Islamic metaphysical discourse creates a fertile ground for examining their shared assumptions. Accordingly, this research aims to understand how foundations such as rational demonstration, illumination, anthropology, and the nature of existence influence the structure of the mystical path.Despite the abundance of literature on the mystical teachings of Javadi Amoli, studies presenting a structured comparison between him and Dashtaki are scarce. Moreover, due to historical and textual limitations, Dashtaki’s writings are relatively scattered and occasionally attributed to later scholars. This has constrained accurate scholarly reconstruction but has simultaneously made the comparative perspective more valuable. The significance of the research is twofold. First, from a theoretical perspective, it highlights the continuity of Islamic wisdom from classical Peripatetic philosophy through Illuminationism to contemporary Transcendent Theosophy. Second, at a practical level, the comparison helps clarify how intellectual principles translate into moral conduct and spiritual transformation. Thus, exploring the philosophical premises behind wayfaring provides insights into the dynamic interplay between metaphysical knowledge and ethical refinement in Islamic spirituality. Materials and MethodsConsidering its objectives, this study adopts a fundamental research design grounded in descriptive–analytical reasoning. Data collection was conducted through a classical library-based method, including printed manuscripts, edited texts, thematic studies, and academic databases. After extracting source material, the content was systematically categorized according to major themes such as ontology, epistemology, anthropology, and practical mysticism.The research proceeds by coding conceptual indicators, classifying the terms used by the two scholars, and identifying correspondences between their metaphysical assumptions and their spiritual frameworks. After establishing these correlations, the study applies comparative interpretation, assessing similarities and differences regarding the stages, conditions, and ultimate goals of wayfaring. Thus, the methodological framework integrates historical reading, conceptual reconstruction, critical comparison, and thematic synthesis. Research FindingsThe comparative analysis reveals that both Dashtaki and Javadi Amoli perceive spiritual wayfaring as a structured ascent that integrates psychological reformation, metaphysical realization, and ethical purification. Dashtaki proposes a tripartite structure comprising preparatory virtues, principal foundations, and complementary achievements. Key notions such as resolve, sincerity, worship, seclusion, and unity are presented not merely as moral traits but as existential transformations rooted in ontological unity and illuminative knowledge. His classification draws heavily on Peripatetic reasoning while simultaneously admitting illuminative intuition, thereby merging rational discipline with experiential unveiling.In contrast, Javadi Amoli frames wayfaring through an integrated view of anthropology and ontology, especially emphasizing poverty, guardianship, and the four symbolic journeys. His analysis differs in highlighting social and communal dimensions, situating spiritual advancement within the civilizational mission of divine monotheism. Although he relies on earlier Sufi heritage, his approach is deeply affected by the principles of Transcendent Philosophy, particularly gradational existence and intellectual witnessing. Consequently, while differences in vocabulary and emphasis occur, the convergence of both thinkers lies in their view of spiritual realization as a movement toward unity, annihilation in God, and the harmonization of reason and mystical experience. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe findings of this research indicate that the spiritual teachings of both Dashtaki and Javadi Amoli emerge from systems in which metaphysics provides the structural foundation of moral practice. Dashtaki, as an intermediary figure between Peripatetic and Illuminationist traditions, paved the intellectual ground for synthesizing rational inquiry with mystical unveiling. His model of wayfaring incorporates notions of self-transformation, inner witnessing, unity, and existential refinement. Javadi Amoli, inheriting the philosophical legacy of Mullā Ṣadrā, expands this synthesis through rational precision and metaphysical argumentation, while simultaneously grounding spiritual progress in social responsibility and theological guardianship.From a comparative viewpoint, their shared insistence on revelation-centered certainty demonstrates that Islamic mysticism is not autonomous from philosophy but is structured by it at its deepest levels. Philosophy shapes definitions of human identity, spiritual capacity, and the ontological hierarchy leading toward divine union. Mysticism, in turn, transforms philosophical propositions into lived experience and existential realization. Therefore, this research shows that both thinkers ultimately arrive at the same integrative horizon: rationally grounded spirituality, in which the soul ascends through graded existential intensification until achieving unity, witnessing, and annihilation. The convergence of two different historical figures thus reflects the persistent logic of Islamic wisdom in harmonizing intellect, experience, and revelation. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29943.html Religion has always been regarded as one of the fundamental pillars of legitimacy and governance in post-revolutionary Iran. Consequently, various theoretical and discursive efforts have emerged to understand, interpret, and reexamine religion, among which two major currents—“traditional Islam” and “religious intellectualism”—hold a prominent place. This study focuses on the ideas of two influential thinkers, Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah Yazdi and Mostafa Malekian, as key representatives of these two intellectual streams, aiming to explore and analyze the components and mechanisms underlying their understanding of religion. The research adopts a qualitative methodology based on Attride-Stirling’s three-stage thematic analysis, using excerpts from speeches and written works by these two figures to extract the core themes. The findings reveal that Malekian’s thought emphasizes three overarching themes: “the variability of religious knowledge,” “the rationalization of religious beliefs,” and “ethics and spirituality as the foundation of religiosity.” In contrast, Ayatollah Mesbah highlights three central components: “the necessity of explaining religious beliefs,” “the comprehensiveness of religion,” and “faith-based obligation.” This divergence reflects a fundamental difference in the epistemological, methodological, and teleological foundations of their respective approaches to understanding religion. Keywords: Understanding Religion, Religious Intellectualism, Traditional Islam, Misbah Yazdi, Malekian, Qualitative Approach. IntroductionIn contemporary Iranian intellectual discourse, religion continues to serve as a foundational pillar for social legitimacy and governance, shaping both normative frameworks and individual ethical conduct. The perspectives of key thinkers such as Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah Yazdi and Mostafa Malekian illustrate the tension between preserving traditional religious frameworks and adapting religious understanding to the epistemic and ethical demands of modernity. While Mesbah emphasizes the comprehensive and duty-bound nature of religion rooted in scriptural authority, Malekian foregrounds the variability, rationalization, and ethical-spiritual dimensions of religiosity, reflecting the influence of modern philosophical thought.Examining these divergent approaches provides insight into how religion is interpreted, justified, and enacted in contemporary Iran, and highlights the broader dynamics between traditional and reformist currents in shaping social and political norms. Materials and MethodsThis study employs a qualitative thematic analysis. Through identifying basic, organizing, and global themes, the content of speeches, writings, and secondary sources related to Mesbah’s and Malekian’s thought was systematically analyzed.The process involved:In-depth study of primary and secondary sources,Extraction of basic themes from their statements and works,Categorization of these into organizing themes, andSynthesizing global themes to map the conceptual frameworks underlying their understanding of religion.This approach enables a structured comparison of their epistemological and normative frameworks. Research FindingsThe analysis of the primary and secondary sources revealed distinct conceptual patterns in how each thinker approaches religion. While both engage deeply with the philosophical, ethical, and social dimensions of religiosity, their frameworks differ fundamentally in epistemology, methodology, and priorities. The following sections outline the core themes that characterize Mesbah Yazdi’s and Malekian’s understandings of religion: Mesbah’s Understanding of ReligionNecessity of explicating religious beliefs: Defending religion is achieved through both intra-religious (scriptural and traditional) and extra-religious (rational and philosophical) reasoning. Mesbah emphasizes religious rationality and the struggle against innovations (bid‘a), viewing reason as complementary to revelation.Comprehensiveness of religion: Religion, in his view, encompasses all aspects of human life—individual, social, doctrinal, and ethical—and contains both fixed and flexible rulings. Changing circumstances affect applications, not principles.Faith and duty: Faith is inseparable from religious duty. The relationship between rights and duties is reciprocal, and justice is defined through their balance. Religious obligations form the basis for moral action and the realization of both individual and collective good. Malekian’s Understanding of ReligionChangeability of religious knowledge: Religious knowledge is historically and experientially conditioned. With modernity, epistemological shifts have turned religion into a more personal and functional matter.Rationalization of religious beliefs: Religious beliefs are acceptable only if rationally justified. Malekian highlights the fundamental distinction between traditional rationality and modern rationality as a source of epistemic transformation.Ethics and spirituality as the foundation of religiosity: Unlike traditional approaches centered on divine command and law, Malekian grounds religiosity in ethics and inner spirituality. He sees spirituality as compatible with modernity and capable of providing personal meaning and psychological well-being. Discussion of Results and ConclusionThe findings of the study reveal that Mesbah’s model of religious understanding is anchored in preserving the traditional framework of religion. Reason complements but does not replace revelation; faith is tied to obligation; and religion encompasses all spheres of life through a combination of fixed principles and contextual applications. In contrast, Malekian builds his framework on epistemic transformation, modern rationality, and personal spirituality. He views traditional religion as unable to respond adequately to the needs of modern individuals and proposes rationalized spirituality as an alternative.The comparison highlights that the gap between traditional and modern approaches is not merely rhetorical but rooted in epistemological sources, concepts of rationality, the role of duty, and the social function of religion. Mesbah’s thought aims to preserve and defend a fixed religious structure, whereas Malekian seeks to reinterpret religion as an individual, rational, and ethical-spiritual experience within modernity. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29978.html According to the evidentialist approach, one’s final position on a proposition emerges from the balance between supporting and opposing evidence, and justifying that proposition requires considering (or weighing) all available evidence. Unlike theists and atheists—who interpret evidence to favor their own beliefs — the agnostic regards the evidence as neutral, whether due to ambiguity about what counts as evidence, the failure of individual items to establish the claim, or the equal weight of opposing evidence. In this context, “evidence” typically refers to public evidence accessible to all. Occasionally, however, private and non-shareable evidence may arise in favor of one side. The key question is whether such private evidence can challenge or outweigh public evidence and thereby lift the suspension of judgment. Based on this study’s findings, private evidence can be valid and effective in epistemic dilemmas that incline toward agnosticism, provided two conditions are met: it possesses independent epistemic grounding (evidence supporting evidence), and the opposing public evidence is not so overwhelmingly strong as to create a perfect symmetry. Keywords: Private Evidence; Agnosticism; Suspension of Epistemic Judgment; Theism; Atheism; Religious Experience. IntroductionThe dominant approach in religious epistemology holds that evidence ultimately determines the outcome of debates, with justification resting on the evidence one possesses while rejecting contrary evidence. Theists and atheists both claim that evidence conclusively supports their own stance. In contrast, the epistemic agnostic suspends judgment—often because of uncertainty about what qualifies as evidence, flaws in individual evidential items, or balanced weights among conflicting evidence. Although “evidence” normally denotes public, widely accessible proof, certain private evidence may persuade only a single individual or a limited circle of epistemic agents. This study explores whether and how private evidence can break the stalemate caused by evenly balanced public evidence.While agnosticism has been addressed in recent epistemological debates in the West and has seen limited discussion in Iran, the role of private evidence has not received systematic attention as a central focus. By examining the assumptions underlying agnosticism, the present research clarifies how private evidence may help one escape epistemic skepticism about God’s existence. It analyzes the types of evidence and their roles in two contexts—epistemic disagreement and suspension of judgment—and then establishes the conditions under which private evidence attains validity when it conflicts with public evidence. Materials and MethodsThe current study employs an analytical research methodology, examining arguments for the epistemic validity of private evidence both under ordinary conditions and in cases of conflict with public evidence. Research FindingsThe findings of the study show that four possibilities arise regarding the epistemic warrant of private evidence:Valid in ordinary circumstances but invalid in conflict.Valid in both ordinary and conflict situations.Invalid in both ordinary and conflict scenarios.Invalid in ordinary circumstances but valid when in conflict.These scenarios are theoretically conceivable, though not all have clear proponents among religious epistemologists. Various proposals have been made to address these possibilities. On the one hand, agnosticism produces no decisive conclusion and leaves us in epistemic indecision, which we ought to escape. On the other hand, privatizing epistemic structures and processes —grounding belief on factors beyond public scrutiny—undermines the accuracy of our epistemic representations. A balanced approach must reconcile these concerns. This study demonstrates that private evidence can resolve the problem of epistemic suspension if it meets two conditions:It enjoys its own independent epistemic support, ensuring it is not merely subjective.Competing public evidence is not so compelling as to undermine confidence in one’s private deliverances. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, private evidence consists of data or testimony that is not publicly accessible and derives from an individual’s personal epistemic faculties. Its legitimacy is contested both under normal conditions and when it clashes with public evidence. Ordinarily, private testimony may be deemed valid if it can be reconciled with established public epistemic channels, for example, interpreting religious experience as a form of sensory or emotional perception. When public evidence for and against God’s existence is evenly balanced, the debate can slide into suspension of judgment—an agnostic impasse that is epistemically unsatisfactory. Introducing private evidence reshapes this impasse: evidence can no longer be regarded as wholly neutral, and the agent becomes fully justified in acting based on their private conviction. This position is defensible. Beyond the general warrant for private evidence like religious experience, such evidence is especially valuable in an epistemic stalemate.Individuals may legitimately rely on private evidence when two conditions hold: it has its own epistemic grounding, and the opposing public evidence is not overwhelmingly strong. In the specific case of belief in God, objections to theism are not so decisive as to weaken both public and private supports for belief. Moreover, the imperative to avoid unbelief—and its attendant epistemic shortcomings—further underscores the prudence of crediting private evidence when public and private testimonies diverge. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30116.html Apostasy has been a controversial issue in many religions, particularly among monotheistic faiths. This study investigates the historical and jurisprudential aspects of apostasy in Zoroastrianism and Islam, drawing upon Pahlavi sources from the Sassanian era and early Islamic centuries, as well as classical Islamic jurisprudence. Texts such as Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān, Vendidad, Pahlavi narratives, and early Islamic legal writings discuss the causes of apostasy, worldly and otherworldly punishments, property rights, guardianship, marital bonds, and conditions for repentance. The study highlights similarities, such as the ultimate punishment of death and ritual impurity, and divergences, including grace periods for returning to the faith, property distribution, and treatment of female apostates. Using a descriptive-analytical methodology and library-based resources, the study first examines apostasy in Zoroastrianism, then in Islam, and finally provides a comparative perspective on these traditions. The analysis demonstrates both the continuity and divergence in legal and religious thought concerning apostasy across time and cultures. Keywords: Apostasy in Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrian Jurisprudence and Law, Apostasy in Islam, Apostasy, Sassanian Era.IntroductionApostasy, or the renunciation of one’s faith, has historically been regarded as a serious transgression in many religious traditions. In ancient Iran, Zoroastrianism provided structured legal and religious frameworks to address apostasy, particularly during the Sassanian period, when Zoroastrian priests (mobeds) were often involved in judicial processes. Early Pahlavi texts like Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān and later Zoroastrian narratives illustrate the legal and ritual dimensions of apostasy, including worldly punishment, purification rites, property confiscation, and marital consequences. These texts reflect a response to both internal religious challenges and external pressures following the Islamic conquest of Persia, demonstrating an effort to codify and preserve Zoroastrian traditions.In parallel, Islamic jurisprudence addresses apostasy extensively, emphasizing both spiritual and societal dimensions. The Qur’an and classical jurists outline punishment, procedural safeguards, property implications, and gender-specific regulations for apostates. By comparing these frameworks, the study aims to explore points of convergence and divergence between Zoroastrian and Islamic approaches, assessing how cultural, religious, and legal contexts shaped their treatment of apostasy. This research contributes to understanding the historical development of religious law and its ethical, social, and legal implications. Materials and MethodsThis study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, relying on library and archival resources. Primary sources include Sassanian-era Zoroastrian legal texts (Mādiyān-e Hezār Dādestān, Vendidad), Pahlavi narratives, and early Islamic jurisprudential writings. Relevant secondary literature and scholarly analyses were also consulted to contextualize the findings. Information was systematically collected, categorized, and compared, focusing on legal rulings, social implications, and doctrinal interpretations of apostasy in both religions. The methodology ensures that comparative insights are grounded in historical evidence and scholarly interpretation. Research FindingsA comparative examination of apostasy in Zoroastrianism and Islam reveals significant similarities and differences in legal and ritual treatments. In both traditions, apostasy is punishable by death, yet the grace period for repentance differs: one year in Zoroastrianism and three days in Islamic jurisprudence. Apostates are considered ritually impure in both religions, although Zoroastrian texts hold that the corpse of the apostate is not impure, contrasting with Islamic concepts of spiritual impurity. Property confiscation also varies, with Zoroastrian law assigning seized assets to the first Zoroastrian claimant, while Islamic law distributes property to heirs or the public treasury depending on sect and timing.Regarding women, Zoroastrian law treats male and female apostates equally, whereas Islamic law provides nuanced procedures for female apostates, including imprisonment and opportunities for repentance. Apostasy dissolves marital bonds in both religions, although the specifics of guardianship and family law differ. Finally, maturity is a common condition for apostasy, but age thresholds vary between traditions and among Islamic legal schools. These findings highlight both the shared ethical concerns and culturally distinct legal solutions surrounding apostasy in Zoroastrian and Islamic contexts. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that while Zoroastrianism and Islam share common principles regarding apostasy—such as punishment, impurity, and marital consequences—differences arise from historical, cultural, and theological contexts. The Sassanian-era Zoroastrian texts reflect a legal system deeply intertwined with religious authority and social control, emphasizing ritual observance and preservation of faith. In contrast, Islamic jurisprudence combines divine guidance with codified legal mechanisms, providing varying interpretations across sects and schools.The comparative analysis underscores how both traditions sought to protect community cohesion, religious identity, and moral order. Zoroastrian texts illustrate adaptation to post-conquest realities, reinforcing internal religious norms, while Islamic jurisprudence demonstrates flexibility within a broader legal-theological framework. By examining apostasy in these two traditions, the study provides insights into the evolution of religious law, highlighting continuity and divergence in ethical, social, and legal approaches. Ultimately, the research contributes to a nuanced understanding of apostasy as a complex intersection of faith, law, and society across historical periods. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29648.html The Religion of the Righteous emerged in the early centuries of the Islamic calendar in western Iran, particularly among the Kurdish people. Although this religion traces its origins to a sect that diverged from Islam, many of its teachings reflect the influence of ancient religious traditions, including pre-Islamic Abrahamic faiths such as Christianity. The followers of the Religion of the Righteous believe in the existence of one God, and the foundational doctrine of their faith is based on the concept of divine manifestation. This study seeks to explore the question: What theological or anthropological elements are shared between the Religion of the Righteous and Christianity regarding the perfection of human beings? The findings of this research demonstrate that the Religion of the Righteous, grounded in the idea of divine agency and manifestation, identifies exceptional human beings as reflections of the divine essence (grace). Such individuals are considered to possess divine attributes and are viewed as manifestations of God’s essence. This theological position shows significant parallels with Christian teachings, wherein Jesus Christ (peace be upon him) is understood to be one of the three persons of the Holy Trinity and is endowed with divine qualities. This study highlights the mutual emphasis in both traditions on the divine-human figure as the path to human perfection. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30206.html William James and Rudolf Otto offer two distinct yet complementary approaches to religious experience. James, adopting a psychological perspective, emphasizes the subjective and functional dimensions of religious experience, whereas Otto, through a phenomenological-theological approach, focuses on its objective and content-based aspects. This study examines the views of James and Otto on religious experience using a descriptive–analytical method. Its primary aim is to compare these two approaches and to clarify their respective epistemological and methodological foundations. James approaches religious experience through an empirical-psychological framework, highlighting its psychological and epistemic functions. Otto, by contrast, stresses the “non-rational” and “immediate” dimension of experience through the concept of the numinous. The study seeks to: 1) identify points of convergence between the two thinkers, 2) uncover their epistemological and methodological divergences, and 3) highlight the innovative contributions of each approach to contemporary studies of religious experience. The findings suggest that the perspectives of James and Otto are complementary. Their combined framework offers a comprehensive model in which religious experience is understood as both a psychological and a theological event—one that transforms human consciousness (James) and constitutes a direct encounter with the sacred (Otto). https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30408.html Relying on a “metaphysical and structural comparative” approach, the present study investigates the mode of expansion and manifestation of the Absolute within two independent epistemological horizons: the mystical school of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi in Islam and the ancient Upanishadic texts in Hinduism. In Ibn Arabi’s intellectual system, “Allah”, as the all-comprehensive Divine Name, serves as the point of connection between the strictly Unseen Essence and the world of multiplicity, and the reality of the Truth permeates existence through three levels of manifestation (Essential, Nominal, and Active) and via the interplay of the Attributes of Jamāl and Jalāl. Parallel to this structural formulation, the Upanishadic texts (particularly the Maitri Upanishad), while insisting on the fundamental principle of the peerless unity of “Brahman”, formulate the Hindu “Trimurti” (Brahmã, Viṣṇu, and Śiva) not as independent entities, but as functional manifestations and instruments of that Absolute Truth’s will for cosmic creation, preservation, and dissolution. The objective of this study is to comparatively analyze these structures to demonstrate how both religions, despite their distinct historical and cultural origins, have resorted to a similar mediatory concept to explain the logic of transition from the “Absolute Unity of Essence” to the “restricted multiplicity of acts”.   Keywords: Allah;  Brahman; Manifestation; Ibn ʿArabī; Upaniṣads.   Introduction Religion plays a fundamental role in giving meaning to human life and addresses the various dimensions of human existence. One of the most important issues in the individual dimension of religion is how finite human beings relate to the infinite God and the sacred. Human beings have always sought to understand how they can speak to the divine essence, by what name they should call upon God, and how they can bring their needs and fears before Him. This search for connection with the Lord—whether in the form of a merciful God who responds in times of hardship or as a powerful and wrathful God in times of affliction—has always been the main driving force behind humanity’s turn toward religion. The manner in which finite human beings relate to the infinite Divine is a fundamental topic in religious thought. This research focuses on a comparative dialogue between two foundational non-dualistic frameworks: the mystical school of Ibn Arabi in Islam and the ancient Upanishadic texts in Hinduism. The central problem is to explore how these independent epistemological horizons formulate the Absolute’s manifestation. In Islam, the unitary “Allah” is recognized through His Most Beautiful Names, categorized into Attributes of Beauty (Jamāl) and Majesty (Jalāl). Conversely, Hinduism posits an absolute reality called “Brahman”, whose primary cosmic functions are manifested through the Tri-murti. The significance of this study lies in utilizing a structural comparative approach—rather than a historical one—to demonstrate how two pinnacle traditions conceptualize the geometry of the Divine’s connection to the world of multiplicity.   Materials and Methods This research is fundamentally theoretical and employs a “structural and phenomenological analytical-comparative” methodology. Data collection relies on a library-based approach, focusing on primary texts and classical commentaries. For Ibn Arabi, texts such as Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam and its commentaries were analyzed. For the Hindu tradition, the primary Upanishadic texts, particularly the Maitri Upanishad, served as the main sources. The analysis was conducted in three stages. The first stage involved phenomenological articulation, independently examining concepts like “Allah” and “Brahman” within their indigenous horizons. The second stage utilized structural analysis to investigate the geometry of transition from Absolute Unity to restricted multiplicity. The final step involved a metaphysical comparison to synthesize the convergences and divergences between the Divine Names and the Triadic deities as mediatory structures.   Research Findings The analytical comparison reveals three foundational findings regarding the metaphysical structures of both paradigms. First, both traditions posit an absolutely transcendent Essence (Ontological Unity) beyond time and space—the Essence of Allah and Nirguna Brahman. Second, due to this unfathomability, both employ a “mediatory structure” (Functional Multiplicity). The Divine Names in Islam and the Tri-murti in Hinduism function not as independent ontological entities, but as conduits of grace and operational attributes to make cognition possible for terrestrial beings. Third, there is a distinct structural isomorphism between these models. Brahma (Creator) corresponds to the Names of Origination (e.g., Al-Khaliq), Vishnu (Preserver) mirrors the Attributes of Beauty (Jamāl, e.g., Al-Hafiz), and Shiva (Destroyer/Transformer) reflects the Attributes of Majesty (Jalāl, e.g., Al-Mumit). In both paradigms, these manifestations serve as the sole epistemological pathway for earthly beings to connect with the Infinite.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions The current comparative analysis confirms that despite historically distinct contexts, the mystical frameworks of Ibn Arabi and the Upanishads share analogous mediatory models to resolve the enigma of connecting the “Absolute” with the “restricted”. Both systems exhibit profound functional isomorphism between the Islamic Attributes (Jamāl and Jalāl) and the cosmic functions of the Hindu Tri-murti. However, a critical dialogue between these paradigms reveals an essential ontological difference stemming from their distinct theological premises. In Islamic mysticism, the Divine Names remain strictly non-independent modes of a singular Essence, firmly rooted in absolute monotheism (Tawhid). In contrast, the Hindu Tri-murti are frequently perceived as distinct personified deities with individual cults, reflecting a theological approach that accepts divinity in multiplicity. In conclusion, the trajectory of human connection with the Sacred—whether through emulating Divine ethics (Takhalluq) in Islam or realizing the unification of the individual soul (Atman) with Brahman in Hinduism—demonstrates that the intrinsic human need for structural intermediaries of divine grace transcends specific dogmatic boundaries. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30541.html One of the most significant issues in philosophy is the knowledge of God, which is regarded as the highest form of knowledge. According to Mulla Sadra, knowledge of the Necessary Being is innate, since human beings, in times of hardship, naturally and instinctively turn toward the Ultimate Cause and the One who facilitates all affairs, even if they are not consciously aware of doing so. From the perspective of Allameh Tabataba’i, the knowledge of God is likewise innate to human beings. Through their God-given nature (fiṭrah), individuals affirm the existence of a Creator for the world who is free from all imperfections. Knowledge of Him further requires that one not regard oneself as independent in one’s actions, but rather as fundamentally dependent upon Him. This study seeks to provide a comparative evaluation of innate knowledge of God from the perspectives of two prominent Muslim philosophers, Mulla Sadra and Allameh Tabataba’i, employing a descriptive-analytical approach. Mulla Sadra’s account of innate knowledge of God exhibits considerable affinity and conceptual proximity to that of Allameh Tabataba’i, although certain differences may also be discerned. The findings indicate that both thinkers, through their acceptance of such principles as the Primacy of Existence, the existential poverty of contingent beings, and the complete ontological dependence of the effect upon its cause, adopt a largely convergent approach to the innateness of the knowledge of God. Furthermore, both regard the ultimate purpose of creation as humanity’s attainment of nearness to God. Nevertheless, they differ in their explanations of this issue, particularly with respect to their interpretations of the Proof of the Truthful (Burhān al-Ṣiddīqīn) and their understanding of the affinity between cause and effect.   https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30252.html The issue of “distortion of sacred texts”, especially the Bible (the Old Testament), has long been one of the fundamental challenges in comparative theology. Going beyond traditional approaches, the present study presents a new content-theological index for measuring distortion: the theological image of woman. This approach is based on the premise that a sacred text’s view of women is a direct reflection of its theological paradigm regarding concepts such as divine justice and wisdom. Accordingly, the main question of the study is whether the image of women in the Old Testament is compatible with the principles of divine justice and the Quranic narrative or does it indicate content distortion? The hypothesis of the study is that the paradigmatic gap between the Quran and the Old Testament in the three areas of creation, sin, and law (Sharia) is evidence of spiritual distortion in the Old Testament. This study compares these three paradigms using a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the study show that the Old Testament depicts a paradigm in which women are ontologically secondary and parasitic to men (creation from a rib); redemptively responsible for original sin; and legislatively a warded and unclean being. In contrast, the Quran recognizes a paradigm based on unity of nature (one soul), shared responsibility for error and repentance, and dignity and independent legal capacity for women. This fundamental and irreconcilable contradiction, which is incompatible with theological principles of divine justice and wisdom, is independent evidence of the occurrence of content distortion in the Old Testament. This research presents a new paradigm for distortion analysis and also emphasizes the need for a critical rereading of Israelite texts.   Keywords: Women in the Quran, Women in the Old Testament, Spiritual Distortion, Comparative Theology, Divine Justice.   Introduction The question of the corruption of sacred texts, particularly the Jewish-Christian Bible, has always been a central focus in comparative theology. The traditional approach in Islamic studies has generally focused on historical and textual criticism. This study, while drawing on this tradition, proposes a novel approach: using a content-theological index titled the ‘theological image of women’ for assessing corruption. Its fundamental hypothesis is that a religious text’s view of women directly reflects its theological paradigm concerning divine justice, wisdom, and dignity. Therefore, any portrayal depicting women as subordinate, inherently sinful, or lacking independent legal capacity can be an indicator of an internal tension within that text concerning God's attributes and evidence of "spiritual distortion".   Materials and Methods This research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method within the framework of comparative kalām (theology). Data were extracted from primary sources (the Qur'an, the Old Testament), classical and contemporary Islamic exegeses, works of Jewish and Christian theologians, as well as feminist studies. The analytical criterion was the ‘compatibility of revelatory content with divine justice, wisdom, and dignity’, a principle rooted in Shi’i theological tradition. For analysis, three domains of religious anthropology were designated as analytical paradigms: The Paradigm of Creation (ontological dimension) The Paradigm of Sin (soteriological dimension) The Paradigm of Law (legal-social dimension).   Research Findings The present comparative study reveals profound gaps between the two traditions regarding the verbal image of women as an indicator of distortion, which are summarized as follows: In theParadigm of Creation, the dominant Biblical tradition (especially in the second Genesis narrative and Pauline-Augustinian theology) tends towards a "parasitic ontology": woman is portrayed as a secondary and dependent creation to man. In contrast, the Qur'an, by emphasizing a "single soul" (nafs wāḥidah) and the unity of human nature, negates any notion of secondary creation. In theParadigm of Sin, the dominant Biblical narrative presents woman as the primary agent of the Fall; a notion crystallized in the doctrine of "Original Sin". The Qur'an, by consistently employing dual grammatical forms, establishes shared responsibility and rejects any priority of blame assigned to women. In the Paradigm of Law (Sharia), the aforementioned foundations manifest in institutionalized regulations such as limitations on women's independent legal capacity, extensive purity laws, and prohibitions on their religious leadership in the Christian tradition. The Qur'an, in fundamental contrast, affirms principles of inherent human dignity, women’s independent legal personality, economic ownership, and the possibility of women serving as spiritual exemplars.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions Considering the results of the study, the mentioned gap is not merely an interpretative difference but stems from two distinct logics concerning divine justice and wisdom. It appears that many elements of the woman’s image in the Biblical tradition reflect patriarchal cultural structures that have been solidified in the form of religious doctrine. From the perspective of Islamic theology, this process constitutes "spiritual distortion".  The innovation of this research lies in transforming the "question of woman" into a methodological tool for distortion assessment. In this framework, the Qur'an appears as a "theological corrective" that presents an image consistent with divine justice and wisdom. The findings of the study also emphasize the necessity for a critical re-reading of Isrā'īliyyāt (Israelite narratives) within Islamic exegesis and for intra-traditional rethinking within Jewish-Christian theology. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30579.html The concept of the covenant, understood as a sacred and binding pact between humans and the divine, constitutes a core theme in ancient Near Eastern civilizations and the Abrahamic traditions. This study adopts an analytical and comparative approach to trace the historical and conceptual evolution of covenant from Mesopotamian cultures—especially Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria—to the Hebrew Bible. In Mesopotamia, covenants largely functioned as bilateral agreements that simultaneously served political, legal, and religious purposes, stabilizing royal authority and social order through oath, sacrifice, and sanction. By contrast, in the Hebrew tradition, the covenant gradually emerges as a divine initiative in which God defines the terms, grants promises, and demands loyalty. Through close textual analysis of royal treaties, legal codes, and biblical narratives such as the Noahic, Abrahamic, Sinaitic, and Davidic covenants, the study demonstrates that covenant moves from a tool of royal legitimation into a theological and ethical doctrine at the heart of Israelite identity. This conceptual shift reshapes the understanding of law, history, and collective destiny, and provides a key bridge between ancient political theology and the later Abrahamic discourse on justice, salvation, and divine sovereignty.   Keywords: Covenant, Mesopotamian Civilizations, Old Testament, Sumer, Hebrew, Conceptual Evolution.   Introduction Ancient Near Eastern civilizations, particularly Mesopotamia, not only pioneered complex social and political structures but also articulated foundational religious and ethical concepts, among which the covenant occupies a central place. In Mesopotamian contexts such as Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria, covenants are primarily deployed as bilateral contracts that intertwine legal, political, and cultic dimensions, securing loyalty, royal legitimacy, and social order. In the Hebrew Bible, however, covenant is gradually reconfigured as a divine and often unilateral pact by which God shapes the religious and collective identity of Israel. The central problem addressed in this study is how the notion of covenant evolves from a legal–political instrument in Mesopotamia into a theological and identity-bearing doctrine in the Hebrew tradition, and what implications this transformation has for understanding law, theology, and communal self-definition. Existing scholarship has examined covenant in Mesopotamian treaties and in biblical texts, yet few studies have systematically traced the conceptual transition across these two spheres from a comparative perspective, especially in Persian-language research. Accordingly, the study asks: (1) What are the structures and functions of covenants in Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian sources, and how do they bind together legal, religious, and political orders? (2) How do key covenant narratives—Noah, Abraham, Sinai, and David—in the Hebrew Bible reshape the understanding of God, law, and peoplehood? (3) In what way does the shift from bilateral contract to unilateral divine covenant contribute to the formation of Israelite theological and ethical identity?   Materials and Methods This study employs a qualitative, analytical–comparative methodology grounded in close reading of selected historical and religious texts from ancient Mesopotamia and the Hebrew Bible. The Mesopotamian corpus includes royal treaties, legal codes, and monumental inscriptions from Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria, with particular attention to loyalty oaths such as the Esarhaddon treaties and related Assyrian texts. These sources are examined to identify the legal formulas, ritual practices, and political functions that structure covenants as bilateral agreements between kings, subjects, and deities. On the Hebrew side, the study focuses on paradigmatic covenant narratives—the Noahic, Abrahamic, Sinaitic, and Davidic covenants—and their reception in prophetic literature. Through textual analysis of these passages, the research traces how covenant is reframed as a divine initiative that organizes law, worship, and collective memory. Comparative analysis then brings the two bodies of texts into dialogue, highlighting both continuities, such as shared oath and sacrifice motifs, and crucial discontinuities, such as the shift from royal legitimation to ethical–theological identity. The theoretical framework draws on previous studies in legal history and biblical theology while reinterpreting their findings in a unified trajectory from Mesopotamian political theology to Israelite covenant theology. This design allows the study to move beyond descriptive comparison and to offer an integrated account of conceptual transformation over time.   Research Findings The analysis of Mesopotamian sources shows that covenants function as highly formalized bilateral agreements, marked by oath formulas, sacrificial rites, and explicit curses, designed to secure loyalty to the king and uphold a divinely sanctioned social order. Legal, political, and religious dimensions are tightly interwoven, so that breaking the covenant simultaneously constitutes a legal offense, a political rebellion, and a cultic transgression. In the Hebrew Bible, key covenant narratives reveal a progressive reorientation of the concept toward a divine initiative. The Noahic covenant universalizes the relationship between God and creation as an unconditional promise; the Abrahamic covenant introduces election and land as the basis of Israel’s identity; the Sinaitic covenant establishes a conditional framework centered on Torah and collective responsibility; and the Davidic covenant links kingship to eschatological hope and messianic expectation. Comparative reading demonstrates that while biblical covenants retain certain formal and ritual features known from ancient Near Eastern treaty traditions, their core focus shifts from legitimizing royal power to defining the theological and ethical vocation of a people. As a result, covenant moves from a primarily juridical–political instrument to a comprehensive doctrinal axis that binds together law, worship, history, and identity in the Israelite tradition.   Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings clarify that the covenant concept undergoes a significant conceptual and theological shift between ancient Mesopotamia and the Hebrew Bible. In Mesopotamia, covenant primarily undergirds royal authority and state order, embedding law and politics within a sacral framework, yet remaining fundamentally a bilateral and conditional contract. In the Hebrew tradition, covenant is reinterpreted as a divine initiative that not only structures Israel’s legal and cultic life but also grounds its historical memory and communal self-understanding. This transition challenges purely legal or purely political readings of covenant and highlights its role as a bridge between political theology and religious identity in the wider Abrahamic discourse. By integrating Mesopotamian treaty forms with biblical covenant narratives, the study shows that the Hebrew Bible simultaneously appropriates and transforms Near Eastern political–legal patterns, redirecting them toward theological themes of grace, justice, judgment, and salvation. In the context of Persian-language scholarship, the study fills a notable gap by offering a systematic, historically oriented comparison that traces the conceptual movement from royal contract to divine covenant. Future research could extend this trajectory by examining how later Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions further reinterpret covenant in relation to prophecy, law, and eschatology, thereby expanding the map of ancient and classical political theology. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30661.html One of the most fundamental ontological dualisms in the thought of Muslim mystics is the dualism of body and soul, taking a central position among other mystical dualisms. Throughout the history of ideas, this dualism has, from its earliest formulations, assumed symbolic gendered representations. The present study employs an analytical approach to examine this dualism and its gendered construction, demonstrating how it has been symbolically gendered and exploring the relationship that Muslim mystics established between sex and gender. The findings indicate that Muslim mystics either denied the existence of female semen, regarding women merely as the recipient of the male seed, or attributed only a negligible and inferior role to the female contribution in human reproduction. Accordingly, every human being is born with a dual-gendered constitution, possessing two opposing sets of qualities: femininity, inherited from the body or the mother, and masculinity, inherited from the soul or the father. Even in perspectives that assign women a preliminary role as the locus of God's self-disclosure, enabling men to attain gnosis, women nevertheless remain associated with nature and the passive principle. Alongside prevailing cultural assumptions and commonly held beliefs, the experiential knowledge of the mystics also profoundly shaped their views on this matter. However, Abu al-Qāsim al-Qushayrī presents a distinctive position. According to him, women and men contribute equally through their respective reproductive seed. Unlike other mystics, he interprets gender in the Qur'anic verses not as the body–soul dualism, thereby placing women and men on an equal ontological footing.   https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30359.html Intertextuality as a literary theory is founded on the principle that no text attains meaning in isolation or independently of other texts. Rather, the meaning of each text is shaped through dialogue and interaction with preceding and contemporaneous texts. When this theory is applied to sacred texts, it enables the discovery of latent meanings within one text through the study of others. Accordingly, the central question of the present article was: How is the theory of intertextuality applied in the interpretation of sacred texts with a particular focus on the Qur'an and the Bible?Employing a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, this study concluded that, given the Qur'an's numerous references to the narratives of previous prophets and its shared themes with the Bible, the method of intertextual interpretation can lead to a richer and more precise reading of Qur'anic verses. Within this framework, topics, such as the Promised One, the Seal of the Prophets, divine ordinances, ethical narratives, and historical accounts can be fruitfully examined. A practical example of this method was provided through the interpretation of Verse 69 of Surah Al-Ahzab and its connection to the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament. The article ultimately concluded that intertextuality is a valuable tool for comparative studies; however, its uncritical application can lead to hermeneutical challenges. Therefore, when interpreting the Qur'an and other sacred texts through an intertextual lens, adherence to all the tenets and foundations of intertextuality is neither strictly necessary nor always conducive as it can prove disruptive. Methodological critiques of intertextuality were also noted. Among other results, the study presented a novel categorization of the types of intertextuality between the Qur'an and the Bible.Keywords: Intertextuality, Interpretation, Quran, The Bible, Comparative Studies of Religions. IntroductionIntertextuality as a literary theory is founded on the principle that no text gains meaning in isolation or independently of other texts. Rather, the meaning of each text is shaped through dialogue and interaction with prior and contemporary texts. When this theory is applied to sacred texts, it enables the discovery of latent meanings within one text through the study of others. Given the numerous references in the Qur'an to the narratives of earlier prophets, as well as its shared themes with the Bible, an intertextual interpretive approach can lead to a richer and more precise reading of Qur'anic verses. In many instances, the Qur'an engages with pre-existing religious and cultural texts by adopting, modifying, or reshaping their narratives. Accordingly, the main question of the present article was: How is the theory of intertextuality applied to the interpretation of sacred texts—particularly the Qur'an and the Bible—and what are the forms of this application? Materials & MethodsThis research employed a descriptive-analytical method combined with a critical approach to examine Qur'anic verses that referenced biblical literature or the religious and cultural beliefs of Jewish and Christian communities. It sought to investigate the role of the intertextual method in this context and identify its various typologies. The primary data sources for this study included the Qur'an, key biblical texts (including both the Old and New Testaments), and selected exegetical works from Islamic and Judeo-Christian traditions. Verses were selected based on their clear thematic or narrative parallels with biblical accounts, including stories of prophets, moral teachings, and eschatological themes. The analytical process involved 3 stages: (a) identifying Qur'anic verses that engaged with prior religious texts; (b) tracing potential intertextual connections to biblical passages or Jewish-Christian traditions; and (c) classifying these connections according to intertextual typologies—such as explicit reference, allusion, or reinterpretation. A critical approach was maintained throughout, acknowledging both the hermeneutical potential and the methodological limitations of applying intertextuality to sacred texts. Special attention was given to the unique status of the Qur'an as Muhaymin (sovereign guardian) over prior scriptures, which distinguished its intertextual relationships from purely secular or literary applications of the theory. Research FindingsThe findings of this research indicated that intertextuality was not merely an interpretive "method" but rather a "paradigm" that had transformed the very nature of textual understanding and led to the formation of a new field of research in comparative religious studies. Transition from Literary Criticism to Theology: Transformation of a ParadigmIntertextuality, a theory developed from the work of Bakhtin and Kristeva (Alfaro, 1996, p. 268), emerged in opposition to structuralism by arguing that texts are not independent, but rather function as "mosaics" of references, gaining meaning only through dialogue with other texts. This paradigm shift from literary criticism to theology revitalized biblical studies by demonstrating that texts like the New Testament are inseparable from their references to the Old Testament (Petersen & Cole, 2014, p. 3). Types and Categories of Intertextuality in the Bible: From Echo to DialogueOne of the significant achievements of this research was the identification and explanation of 5 main categories of intertextual application in biblical studies, which demonstrated the maturity and richness of this approach. This classification showed that intertextuality is not limited merely to finding the "source" of a verse or phrase, but rather constitutes a complex, multi-layered process in the production and perception of meaning (Moyise, 2002). Types and Categories of Intertextuality between the Qur'an and the BibleAnother achievement and innovation of the present research was the provision of a classification of various types of intertextuality between the Qur'an and the Bible. These fell into 5 categories: (a) Qur'anic confirmation by the Bible; (b) elucidation of the Qur'an by the Bible; (c) Qur'anic confirmation by exegetical texts of the Bible; (d) elucidation of the Qur'an by exegetical texts of the Bible; and (e) the overarching authority (Muhayminiyyah) of the Qur'an. Unique Status of the Noble Qur'anAlthough the Qur'an situates itself within an intertextual space with prior texts, it is Muhaymin (sovereign and guardian) over them (Qur'an 5:48). Therefore, applying intertextuality theory to Qur'anic interpretation creates a vertical and corrective relationship aimed at affirming truth, correcting distortions and exercising the Qur'an's overarching authority. This approach has been practically employed in Shi'ite exegesis. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThe article concluded that intertextuality is a valuable tool for comparative studies; however, its uncritical application can lead to hermeneutical challenges. Therefore, when interpreting the Qur'an and other sacred texts through an intertextual lens, adherence to all the principles and foundations of intertextuality is neither strictly necessary nor always beneficial as it can prove disruptive. Methodological critiques of intertextuality have also been noted. Among other findings, this study presented a novel classification of the types of intertextuality between the Qur'an and the Bible.The future research agenda for this field depends on the following considerations: Developing a "Native Theory of Intertextuality" for Qur'anic InterpretationThis theory should position the Qur'an as the central and ultimate criterion in dialogue with other texts, prioritizing the relationship of "overarching authority" (Muhayminiyyah) and "correction" over a purely "horizontal" relationship of "influence". Practical and Methodological ApplicationFurther case studies are needed to concretely demonstrate the capacities and limitations of this method in interpreting challenging Qur'anic verses. Constructive Engagement with CritiquesExisting critiques must be addressed, including those concerning the theory's literary origins, the risk of reader subjectivity, and the challenge of defining the scope of permissible pre-texts. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30344.html This study offers a critical reassessment of historical‑critical interpretations of Qur’anic Christology in the seventh century, focusing on The Other Prophet: Jesus in the Qur’an by Mouhanad Khorchide and Klaus von Stosch. It challenges the assertion that the Qur’an’s portrayal of Jesus (AS) merely echoes prevailing Jewish and Christian theological currents. Rather, the research argues that the Qur’an articulates an autonomous theological and stylistic framework rooted in divine revelation. The central question explored is whether the Qur’an’s depiction of Jesus (AS) conforms to historical‑critical readings or reflects an independent, divinely guided theological vision. Employing an interdisciplinary analytical‑critical methodology grounded in historical‑critical theory and Qur’anic stylistics, the study reveals that many historical‑critical approaches inadvertently diminish Qur’anic theological coherence and overlook its unique rhetorical structure. In contrast, the Qur’an systematically critiques erroneous Christian doctrines such as trinitarianism and the divinization of Jesus (AS), while affirming his prophetic mission, humanity, and role as a messenger of divine unity (tawhid). The Qur’an’s presentation of Jesus (AS) as Kalam Allah (Word of God), Ruh minhu (Spirit from Him), and Abdullah (Servant of God) demonstrates its theological independence. The research concludes that Qur’anic Christology is not the outcome of historical contingencies but represents a divinely orchestrated theological paradigm transcending seventh‑century religious discourse. Keywords: Qur’an, Jesus (AS), Christology, Arabian Peninsula, Historical‑Critical Method. IntroductionRecent comparative scholarship on the Qur’an and the New Testament has increasingly employed historical‑critical frameworks to illuminate religious and cultural exchanges in the seventh‑century Arabian Peninsula. These approaches, while insightful, raise fundamental questions about their adequacy in capturing the Qur’an’s theological and stylistic autonomy. A seminal contribution to this discourse is the first chapter of The Other Prophet: Jesus in the Qur’an (2019), in which Klaus von Stosch contends that the Qur’an’s Christology was shaped by contemporary Jewish and Christian theological currents. He suggests that the Qur’an’s representation of Jesus (AS) evolved through interactions with marginal Christian sects, such as those surrounding the Council of Chalcedon, rather than through an independent theological lens. This thesis, viewing the Qur’anic style as derivative of oral tradition and lacking theological independence, contradicts the Qur’an’s own claim of divine authorship and its role as Muhaymin (Guardian) over earlier revelations.The present research critically examines this position, arguing that such readings oversimplify the Qur’an’s theological integrity and reduce its Christological discourse to a mere byproduct of historical processes. By re‑evaluating these interpretive assumptions, the study aims to demonstrate the Qur’an’s sovereign theological stance in addressing Christological themes, particularly its rejection of trinitarianism and affirmation of Jesus (AS) as a human prophet aligned with divine unity. Materials and MethodsAn interdisciplinary analytical‑critical methodology guides this study, integrating Qur’anic exegesis, historical theology, and stylistic analysis. Principal sources include the Qur’an itself, The Other Prophet: Jesus in the Qur’an (2019), and classical as well as modern exegetical works by both Shia and Sunni scholars, notably Allamah Tabataba’i and Ayatullah Makarem Shirazi. The research undertakes a comparative reading of Qur’anic passages concerning Jesus (AS), such as Al‑Nisa’: 171, Al‑Imran: 59, and Maryam: 16–17, juxtaposed with historical‑critical interpretations. The following three analytical dimensions structure the investigation:The Qur’an’s theological independence in articulating Christology;Its critique of trinitarianism and divinity claims concerning Jesus (AS); andIts distinct stylistic mode of presenting Jesus (AS) as a human messenger.The study avoids historical reductionism by privileging the Qur’an’s internal claims of divine authorship (tawhid, nass), as emphasized in verses like Yunus: 37 and Al‑Fatir: 31, thereby grounding analysis within the Qur’an’s own epistemological frame. Research FindingsThe findings of the study reveal that historical‑critical readings tend to mischaracterize the Qur’an’s Christological narrative by conflating its critique of specific Christian doctrines with a wholesale rejection of Christianity. The Qur’an, while repudiating trinitarianism (Al‑Ma’idah: 73), affirms Jesus (AS) as Kalam Allah and Ruh minhu, positioning him as a human prophet rather than a divine being. Verses such as Al‑Imran: 59 and Al‑Nisa’: 171 underscore his humanity and prophet‑hood, establishing a theological framework that diverges fundamentally from Christian dogma.Through depictions of Jesus (AS) as Abdullah (Servant of God) and Rasulullah (Messenger of God), the Qur’an situates him firmly within the continuum of prophetic tradition. Moreover, its rejection of distortions of tawhid (Al‑Ma’idah: 72) and reaffirmation of his human nature (Al‑Ma’idah: 75) highlight a theological coherence distinct from historical Christian paradigms. The study also recognizes the Qur’an’s stylistic originality, its rhetorical precision and theological consistency, as evidence of divine guidance rather than historical adaptation. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe overall analysis contests the central premise of the historical‑critical approach that views the Qur’an’s Christology as the result of socio‑historical contingencies. On the contrary, the Qur’an articulates a theological vision that is both transcendent and autonomous, correcting doctrinal misconceptions within Christianity while upholding Jesus (AS) as a prophet within the Abrahamic lineage. Its rejection of trinitarianism (Al‑Ma’idah: 73) and affirmation of his human nature (Al‑Ma’idah: 75) reaffirm its unwavering commitment to divine unity (tawhid). The study concludes that Qur’anic Christology represents a divinely inspired theological system, neither derivative nor historically confined, that promotes understanding across faith traditions.By emphasizing shared Abrahamic foundations (Al‑Imran: 67, Al‑Nisa’: 136), the Qur’an advances an interfaith dialogue anchored in theological coherence rather than historical reductionism. Ultimately, the Qur’an’s presentation of Jesus (AS) stands as a testament to its theological sovereignty, affirming both the prophet’s sacred mission and the Qur’an’s enduring transcendence of historical circumstance. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30271.html In Max Weber’s thought, Protestant ethics and theology provide the conceptual foundation for analyzing why the capitalist economy emerged at a particular time and place. To examine historical conditions, Weber employs a distinctive methodology that combines positivist empiricism with idealist conceptualism—an approach reminiscent of Kantian epistemology. Consequently, Weber’s framework does not appear overtly dialectical at first glance, since his neo-Kantian method seeks to establish a meaningful relationship between the realm of empirical reality and the realm of conceptual meaning. Yet the inherent contradictions within this system inevitably generate a form of conceptual dialectic. At each stage, the propositions produced by this dialectic encounter new contradictions when confronted with their material consequences, thereby unfolds new ideal types. When the tension between Protestant theology and ethics—directed toward otherworldly salvation—on the one hand, and the economy and instrumental rationality—directed toward the material world—on the other, reaches its peak, a subtle process of secularization emerges. This creeping secularism gradually deprives capitalism of its moral and religious foundation. Ultimately, secularization strips away the sacred aura of Christian theology and culminates in a bureaucratic and instrumental rationality focused on material power and wealth. The contradictions inherent in this “iron cage”, in turn, produce a new synthesis: the emergence of the charismatic individual. Keywords: Protestant Theology, Capitalism, Rationality, Secularism, Charismatic Personality.  IntroductionMax Weber, a pioneering modern historian, philosopher, and sociologist, is widely regarded as one of the founding figures of sociology, though he personally preferred the title of historian. His work is characterized by a rational‑sociological perspective that engaged deeply with theology’s influence on economy and society, yet without adopting the normative stance of a theologian or a philosopher of religion. Instead, Weber examined how specific theological ideas shaped economic outlooks—an inquiry that required scholarly detachment rather than theological commitment.Weber established a model of the social scientist committed to modern scientific methodology. Before him, discussions of religion were typically led either by its proponents (theologians) or its opponents (Enlightenment philosophers). Weber introduced a dispassionate, research‑oriented approach, treating religion and its effects as objects of empirical and theoretical study. This methodological stance led to his famous distinction between facts and values—a positivist legacy for the modern humanities which holds that science can analyze the nature, function, and impact of values but cannot create or judge them.Contrasting with Marx’s materialist determinism, Weber emphasized the role of subjective, cultural factors in shaping objective economic structures. This sparked extensive debate between left‑ and right‑wing intellectuals. Over a century later, Weber’s multi‑causal, pluralistic approach has gained broader acceptance in modern sociology compared to the more mono‑causal frameworks of Marx or Auguste Comte.Weber’s research centered on three interrelated forces: religion, bureaucratic state authority, and the economy. He argued that as power became more centralized and specialized throughout history, religion also moved toward monotheistic and ethical systematization, with professionalized clergy—developments that profoundly influenced the rise of capitalism. A key historical example for Weber was the emergence of Protestantism and its consequences for modern politics and economics.This study traces the reciprocal influences among these forces in Weber’s writings. It aims to examine how his theological perspective contributed to understanding the rise of capitalism and, dialectically, how that analysis—through the concept of secularization—led to the modern bureaucratic state, rationalization, and ultimately a return to a quasi‑theological political figure: the charismatic leader. The core paradox explored is how the Protestant encouragement of wealth‑production dialectically generated a creeping secularism, to which Weber responded by reintroducing decisionism and the authority of the charismatic personality—a concept rooted in political theology. Materials and MethodsThis study is based on a qualitative, document-based research methodology. It engages deeply with Weber’s primary works such as The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and Economy and Society, while also referencing interpretive works from scholars like Herbert Marcuse and Julien Freund. The approach is interpretive-historical, following Weber’s own methodological paradigm, which combines empirical observation with ideal-type conceptualization. The research traces dialectical developments within Weber's theoretical system using conceptual reconstruction. Research FindingsBased on the description presented in this study, Max Weber’s intellectual system can be understood on two interconnected levels. The first level moves from empirical case studies to conceptualization. Although not purely empirical, these studies heavily emphasize the role of subjective and cultural factors in interpreting reality. They culminate in the formation of ideal types—generalized constructs that capture the “spirit” of an epoch.The second level emerges from theoretical crises within these ideal types, giving rise to an open‑ended dialectic. For example, material capitalism leads to the negation of eschatological theology, and Weberian thought, through re‑analysis, arrives at total bureaucracy and the “iron cage.” This dialectical process has no definitive endpoint. Throughout Weber’s work, we encounter a series of tensions: between religion and science, this world and the afterlife, worldly prosperity and otherworldly salvation, instrumental rationality and irrational decisionism centered on the charismatic personality.What becomes clear is that the Protestant ethic, by promoting worldly work and economic striving, ultimately strengthens secularism, prosperity, and instrumental rationality. Yet instrumental rationality and modern techno‑science, through the domination they impose, eventually give rise to anti‑rational, quasi‑theological charismatic figures. This outcome may be inevitable for any totalizing system that attempts to provide a single narrative for human history—time continues beyond our ideas.While this may seem a pessimistic view of Weber’s thought, we should not stop there. The theoretical structures he created, such as ideal types, remain valuable. Persian‑language articles applying Weberian theories to analyze periods of Iranian history, for instance, offer insightful and enlightening perspectives.Moreover, the dialectical nature of Weber’s thought provides crucial insights: how a religious‑ethical system focused entirely on otherworldly salvation can generate a methodical ethic oriented toward wealth accumulation and, ultimately, a creeping secularism. This should prompt scholars in the humanities to recognize that the ideas and concepts they employ in sociology or history are not fully under their control and may evolve in directions opposite to their original intentions. The fact that modern instrumental rationality—so widely celebrated and uniquely legitimized in contemporary society—relies on a charismatic irrationality is a sobering warning about the precarious nature of epoch‑defining ideas. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsWeber’s analysis reveals a profound dialectical progression: religious asceticism gives rise to capitalist productivity; capitalist success generates material wealth; wealth erodes religious ethics, fostering secular rationalism; and finally, disenchanted rationalism creates a vacuum filled by charismatic leadership. This dialectical model bears resemblance to Hegelian synthesis but remains grounded in empirical sociology rather than metaphysical idealism. The paper argues that charismatic authority, a form of leadership Weber associated with divine favor, emerges as a counterbalance to bureaucratic rationalism, but with its own dangers, potentially destabilizing democratic institutions.The study concludes that Weber’s thought constitutes a dynamic, dialectical system in which religious, economic, and political structures co-evolve. The ideal types Weber constructed—capitalism, bureaucracy, charisma—remain powerful analytical tools. The Protestant ethic, while initially spiritual and moral, catalyzed a process that eventually led to secular, impersonal systems of power. However, the resurgence of charismatic figures signals that the spiritual anxieties that once propelled the Protestant work ethic are not entirely extinguished. Instead, they manifest in new forms, posing fresh challenges for modern liberal democracies. The research highlights how theological origins of capitalism continue to reverberate within contemporary political and economic frameworks, sometimes in paradoxical and even dangerous ways.In summary, the dialectical trajectory followed in this study yields the following key propositions:The Protestant (especially Calvinist) ethical and religious system could provide a subjective and cultural foundation for the objective realities of capitalism in Western Europe and America.This religious system gradually lost its ethical content; only its methodical, work‑oriented form merged with—and even intensified—modern instrumental rationality.A creeping secularism was embedded within this theological framework, gradually displacing its religious substance.Instrumental rationality, combined with modern disciplines such as accounting and statistics, progressively leads to a domineering structure that Weber termed the “iron cage”.Finally, a charismatic personality with theological undertones may re‑emerge, potentially forming a political front against the rational, subjugating system. This reality threatens modern bureaucratic states, capitalist economies, and democratic societies with an irrationality that arises not from external borders but from within their very core. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_29878.html The development of rationality is a foundational concept in Islamic philosophy, arising from the interconnection of ontology, anthropology, and epistemology. A research gap exists in providing a comprehensive and systematic explanation of the mechanism of intellectual development, particularly from the perspective of 'Allamah Tabataba'i, which highlights the necessity of this study. The main research question is: What are the foundations of the development of rationality according to 'Allamah Tabataba'i, and how can these foundations be understood in addressing the challenges of modern rationality? In this regard, the gradual process of the intellect's ascent from comprehending the levels of existence and supersensible realities to presentational intellection is explored—a process in which the intellect is not merely a tool for analysis but a force for the existential perfection of the human being. The research method is analytical-interpretive, based on a direct and precise re-reading of 'Allamah's philosophical and exegetical works. By reconciling theoretical and practical reason, this study presents a framework for balanced rationality that is consistent with the principles of philosophical reason and places revelation, intuition, and guidance on par with reason. The outcome of this research is the explanation of the foundations of intellectual development as a systematic and purposeful process connected to the levels of existence, the congruity between intellect and reality, the principle of causality, and the teleology of existence. The findings indicate that balanced rationality in 'Allamah's thought is a synthesis of theoretical, practical, and intuitive reason, which attains perfection under the guidance of revelation. This model provides a comprehensive and dynamic structure for human rationality and can offer solutions in confronting the challenges of modern rationality. Keywords: Allameh Tabataba’i; Rational Development; Balanced Rationality; Evolutionary Intellect; Revelation.Introduction Rationality is one of the fundamental pillars of human thought and life, and its role in guiding knowledge and ethics has always been a central concern of the great sages of Islam. In the thought of 'Allamah Tabataba'i, rationality is not merely the ability for logical analysis or mental reasoning, but rather a graded, innate force that, through the soundness of innate disposition (fitrah), the guidance of revelation, and the purification of the soul, achieves growth and perfection (Shaker, 2005, Vol. 1, p. 444). In other words, from 'Allamah's perspective, reason functions as God's "inner proof" (hujjat-e bātinī) within the human being, paving the way for the knowledge of truth, ethical guidance, and the realization of human existential perfection (Tabataba'i, 1974, p. 145). The significance of rationality in 'Allamah's wisdom reflects his multidimensional view of human development—a view that considers reason active not only in the theoretical domain but also in the practical and intuitive domains, connecting it to a sound innate disposition (fitrah) and the directives of revelation. Therefore, understanding the development of rationality within this system requires an examination of its components and foundations across three areas: ontology, anthropology, and epistemology.The main research question is thus defined as: What are the foundations of the development of rationality in the wisdom of 'Allamah Tabataba'i, and how these foundations can provide the groundwork for examining human knowledge and ethical perfection? The expected outcomes of this research include a more precise understanding of the structure and components of rationality according to 'Allamah, an explanation of the role of balanced reason in intellectual and ethical development, and the provision of an analytical framework for understanding how rationality is actualized in human life. This analysis can clarify the interaction between innate disposition (fitrah), reason, and revelation, and demonstrate how the philosophical principles of 'Allamah can be utilized to enhance human knowledge and behavior. Materials and MethodsThis research is a descriptive-analytical study that examines the foundations of the development of rationality in the wisdom of 'Allamah Tabataba'i using a library-based method and the analysis of primary and secondary texts. In this method, first, the main works of 'Allamah Tabataba'i, such as Nihayat al-Hikmah, Usul-i Falsafah va Rawish-i Ri'alism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism), Sharh-i Asfar, and Tafsir al-Mizan, were carefully studied. Subsequently, employing qualitative content analysis, the ontological, epistemological, and anthropological foundations of the development of rationality were extracted and explained. This approach has enabled a more precise recognition of the theoretical and practical foundations of the development of rationality within the intellectual system of 'Allamah Tabataba'i. Research FindingsThe findings indicate that balanced rationality integrates intellectual reasoning, ethical considerations, and mystical insight, forming a coherent framework that is both systematic and adaptable. The study shows that this approach reconciles divine revelation with human reasoning, supporting ethical decision-making and philosophical reflection. It addresses contemporary intellectual challenges such as extremism in rationalist thought, textual literalism, and secularist approaches to knowledge. Additionally, balanced rationality facilitates interdisciplinary dialogue between philosophy, theology, and ethics, providing insights into educational practices, scholarly discourse, and the application of Islamic philosophical principles in contemporary contexts. Evidence suggests that the principles of balanced rationality can be incorporated into university curricula, research methodologies, and intellectual training programs to foster critical, ethical, and spiritually-informed reasoning in students and scholars. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The findings of this research indicate that the theory of balanced rationality in the thought of 'Allamah Tabataba'i constitutes a comprehensive and multidimensional system that explains intellectual development harmoniously and proportionately across three domains: ontological, anthropological, and epistemological.From an ontological perspective, reason, as a ray of divine light and a part of the wise system of creation, possesses the capacity to comprehend the hierarchy of existence and discover divine laws. This viewpoint liberates rationality from the limitations of purely empirical approaches and situates it on the path toward wisdom and transcendent knowledge.In the anthropological dimension, 'Allamah Tabataba'i, by emphasizing the rational innate disposition (fitrah) of the human being, makes the true development of reason conditional upon the purification of the soul (tazkiyah) and moral refinement. This is because a reason contaminated by carnal desires will be incapable of grasping pure truths. This behavioral and educative dimension demonstrates the indissoluble bond between intellectual development and moral perfection within his intellectual system.On the epistemological level, 'Allamah, by presenting a hybrid model combining sense perception, reason, and intuition (shuhud), showcases reason's capacity for the intellectual interpretation (ta'wil) of Quranic verses and the discovery of transcendent truths. His theory of balanced rationality—in which theoretical, practical, and intuitive reason are united alongside the guidance of revelation—not only attends to the scientific and philosophical growth of the human being but also guarantees his spiritual and moral journey. This theory, by preserving rational coherence and utilizing diverse sources of knowledge, possesses the capacity to address the epistemological challenges of the contemporary world and can be considered as a comprehensive model for integrating scientific rationality with spiritual insight.With this approach, 'Allamah Tabataba'i demonstrates that human reason is not limited merely to empirical and material domains; rather, by transcending the boundaries of the sensible, it can achieve knowledge of transcendent realities and play a mediating role between revelation, experience, and intuition. This perspective, arising from a profound synthesis of Islamic philosophy and Quranic exegesis, can provide a robust foundation for developing contemporary theories in the field of religious rationality and offer a fundamental solution for overcoming the epistemological crises of the present age.Furthermore, 'Allamah Tabataba'i's innovation becomes evident when compared to other thinkers of the Sadrian School of wisdom. Unlike Mulla Sadra, who primarily emphasizes the existential levels of the soul and substantial motion (al-harakat al-jawhariyyah) in explaining reason, 'Allamah centers rationality on the soundness of the innate disposition (fitrah) and considers it the main condition for intellectual development. Additionally, 'Allamah presents the connection between reason and Quranic revelation much more prominently than the Sadrian tradition, believing that without the guidance of revelation, reason becomes trapped in the logic of sensation. Moreover, he introduces the role of piety (taqwa) and self-purification as pillars of intellectual perfection, elevating rationality from a merely theoretical process to an ethical-spiritual endeavor.Therefore, balanced rationality in the thought of 'Allamah Tabataba'i is not merely a reflection of Transcendent Wisdom (al-Hikmah al-Muta'aliyah); rather, it is a reinterpretation and completion of it based on the intellectual and spiritual needs of contemporary humanity and grounded in Quranic teachings. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_27511.html One of the issues for humans has been the evolutionary and Transformational dynamics of progress, In any society, both micro and macro. Therefore the actual study and analysis about the movement of societies and cultures along with their roots, causes and stages of modernization and progress has always been explored by sociologists and cultural scholars. In this regard, the study, analysis and review of the transformation in Mecca society before the Qur'an descends from ignorance to the Quranic culture can also suggest experiences, patterns and principles and methods for the development of human societies; Because the Qur'an and the Prophet of Islam made a fundamental change in the beliefs and practices, culture and imagination and also the language and literature of the ignorant Arabs; With an unmistakable movement in worldviews, ethics and customs through the channel of literal and semantic changes. This divine movement created doubt In the polytheistic system and the irresponsibility of Makian By rejecting the materialist foundations of culture And modified the approach of the Qur'an's age-old audience to the origin and resurrection of being. This study aims to scrutiny comparatively the two discourses of ignorance and Islam And consider how the transition from the ignorant to the Qur'anic period; Relying on the anthropological patterns found in the daily lives of Arabs in Mecca. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30345.html This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach to examine how contemporary theology is reflected and transformed in religious games and toys. In recent decades, as media and consumer culture have expanded, religion has increasingly moved beyond traditional institutions and rituals, manifesting itself in commodities, entertainment, and everyday practices. Within this context, religious games and dolls serve as tangible expressions of these transformations. The main objective of this article is to analyze this phenomenon on two interconnected levels: first, to interpret religious play as a continuation of ritual and educational traditions, recreating the sacred through bodily, symbolic, and family experiences; and second, to explore religious play as a manifestation of consumer theology, in which faith is commodified and theological meanings are transformed into enjoyable and purchasable experiences. Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks of play and ritual (Huizinga, Caillois, Turner) and the commodification of religion (Baudrillard, Miller), the study demonstrates that religious games operate as a double-edged phenomenon. On one hand, they serve as tools for moral education, faith transmission, and identity formation; on the other, they contribute to the desacralization and superficialization of belief, reflecting the emergence of a playful and consumer-oriented theology. Ultimately, the findings reveal that religious games and toys mirror the evolution of lived theology in the age of media and the marketplace—an era in which the boundaries between faith, imagination, and consumption are increasingly blurred. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30443.html The aim of this study is to examine the capacities of Sadrean action theory in reinterpreting the method of philosophical counseling. The research method is descriptive‑analytical and based on content analysis (including coding, critique, and conceptualization). Its main problem is to explain the potentials of Sadrean action theory for the philosophical counseling approach. The findings indicate that Lahav’s theory emphasizes analytical, critical, and phenomenological methods, incorporating elements such as dialectical tension between limited and liberating patterns, incompatible presuppositions, depth‑language, and entering into human reality. The critiques raised against Lahav’s view regarding the “surrounding” and “depth” include “misinterpretation of the surrounding” and “overgeneralization in relating the client’s problem to philosophical theory.” The Sadrean approach, with its emphasis on an objective understanding of the surrounding and the necessity of aligning beliefs with immaterial forms, seeks to discover immaterial truths and resolve linguistic deviations. This approach, while addressing the aforementioned critiques, assists the client—through identifying the dimensions of the problem and underlying presuppositions, and through the tension between imaginary and rational assumptions—in shaping and elevating their worldview and existential breadth toward intellectual degrees, ultimately reaching the stage of acquired intellect. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30444.html ‘Union’ and ‘Immateriality’ are two characteristics that determine the limits and determinations of their subjects. The actual coexistence of these two, despite their conceptual incompatibility, raises the question of the relation between union and immateriality. This research, using a descriptive-analytical method, examines the Sadrian philosophical response to this question. The relationship between these two concepts varies across different instances and cases, ranging from absolute existence to its highest level, namely the Necessary Existent, as well as other levels such as separate entities and the human soul, each presenting a distinct status and analysis. In this context, Mulla Ṣadrā’s philosophical principles—namely the primacy of existence (aṣālat al-wujūd), gradation (tashkīk), and substantial motion (al-ḥarakat al-jawhariyyah)—outline a new existential relation. The concurrence of union and immateriality, from the realm of quiddity, through the gradational unity of existence, and ultimately to the personal unity of existence, follows an evolutionary path: from the non-simultaneous conjunction of affirmation and negation, then the existential conjunction of the two concepts, and finally the identity of union and immateriality in the third stage. The conclusion is that union returns to unity, and immateriality returns to simplicity, and one cannot be realized without the other. Keywords: Union, Immateriality, Unity, Simplicity, Mulla Ṣulla. Introduction"Union" is the opposite of "separation" and is associated with unity, just as division and dispersion are associated with plurality. The common use of this term in Ṣadrian transcendent wisdom is in describing existence as "collective existence". However, "union" and "collectivity" are also used at different levels of existence, in contrast to the dispersion appropriate to that same level. Examples such as collectivity in immaterial beings, as well as the collective unity of the soul, are clear instances of this. Various levels of union are also realized in the hereafter, which stand in opposition to the dispersions of this world. The common feature of the concept of collectivity in the aforementioned examples indicates its relativity, which results from the difference of collectivity across various instances, as well as the degree of proximity they have to absolute and realized collectivity within existence itself.A careful examination of the concept of collectivity also reveals its connection with another concept, namely "immateriality" (tajarrud), such that in all the aforementioned cases, a kind of immateriality is also present. Unlike "collectivity," which has a positive and affirmative meaning, immateriality is a negative concept. "Immaterial" (mujarrad) means bare, alone, and without appendages or attachments. "Abstraction" (tajrīd) also means separating the attachments and particularities of a thing through the mind. In other words, abstraction means stripping something of its material attributes and accidents, which is possible in the intellect and mind. Immaterial beings are beings such as intellects and souls that are separate from matter and are immaterial in themselves. Although immateriality is often used in its minimal and common sense—namely, being free from matter and material things, especially when used alone and without addition—beyond this usage or mental precedence, when immateriality is added to other concepts, types such as imaginal immateriality (tajarrud al-mithālī), intellectual immateriality (tajarrud al-ʿaqlī), or even immateriality from quiddity (tajarrud ʿan al-māhiyyah) are also formed.The purpose of this study is to express and examine the instances of the coexistence of "union" and "immateriality" in Ṣadrian wisdom in order to answer the question of what the relation between these two concepts is in each case, and ultimately to discover the relationship between them in an absolute sense. Materials and MethodsThe method of this research is descriptive-analytical, based on the works of Mullā Ṣadrā, first-hand library sources on Islamic wisdom, and related research. For this purpose, while adhering to the general principles of pre-Ṣadrian wisdom, direct reference was made to Mullā Ṣadrā's written works, and then secondary books and research were consulted to reach a conclusion. Research FindingsIn Mullā Ṣadrā's view, "union" and "immateriality" are proportional to the primacy of existence and the invalidity of essence. Since the concept of existence is univocal and gradational, in this approach, in addition to the concrete existence of each thing, collective existence is also proposed, which is a unified, simple truth that encompasses all things subordinate to itself. The realization of collective existence at each of the three levels—the ideal, the intellectual, and the divine—requires the realization of a kind of abstraction from the lower level. Based on substantial motion, the meaning of "immateriality" is fluidity and existential renewal, and the meaning of "union" is a fluid, renewed existence in the process of intensity, containing the previous levels.In a further step, within the approach of the personal unity of existence, "union" and "immateriality" become one, because there is nothing other than the sole existence of the Supreme Being. The existence of the Supreme Being is itself "union" and pure unity, and "immateriality" also refers to this reality.Various examples of "union" and "immateriality" can be mentioned in philosophical discussions, including: the absolute "union" and "immateriality" of the Necessary Existent, "union" and "immateriality" in separate substances, "union" and "immateriality" in the soul, and in the perceptual realm of man, all of which are discussed in this article. Discussion of Results and ConclusionsConsidering the results of the present study, it can be said that:Although "union" and "immateriality" are not conceptually the same, they are always associated with each other in their concrete realization. That is, in a two-way and necessary relationship, wherever there is "union", the corresponding "immateriality" of the same level is also present, and conversely, each level of "immateriality" is accompanied by a type of "union".The inseparability of the two concepts of "union" and "immateriality" is the result of the continuity of the two concepts of unity and simplicity. Strictly speaking, the meaning of "union" is the same as unity, and the meaning of "immateriality" is the same as simplicity."Union" is always a positive concept and has an existential and external referent, but "immateriality", depending on the type of ontological perspective or the difference in instances and cases, may have a negative or positive meaning. Differences in ontological approaches also lead to differences in the meaning of "union" and "immateriality". From a substantive perspective, "immateriality" is a negative concept that refers to the elimination of matter and material things, but from an existential perspective based on the primacy and gradation of existence and by considering substantial motion, the concept of "collective existence" is born in its specific meaning. Finally, in the third stage—namely the personal unity of existence—"union" and "immateriality" become one and together form a special type of simultaneity, which in Islamic wisdom is called maʿiyyah bi al-ḥaqq (coincidence with the truth). https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30482.html The proof of the Seddigin, which is considered the strongest way to prove the existence of God, is formulated in the thought of Allameh Tabataba'i by relying on the "principle of reality"; a statement that, according to some great thinkers, is the best and shortest way to prove the necessity of transcendence. Analyzing the philosophical and mystical capacities of this statement is essential to determine its true place in Islamic epistemological systems. This study, with the aim of analyzing and evaluating Allameh's account and determining its level of accuracy, has examined two key axes using the method of rational analysis: analyzing the logical form of the argument and determining its precise conclusion, and also examining the claim of the "obviousness" of the existence of the necessary transcendental in this way. The result is that Allameh Tabataba'i's account of the argument of the Siddiqin, with all its depth and brevity, as a mere transcendental argument within the framework of Masha's philosophy or transcendental wisdom, seems incomplete in proving the objectivity of the "principle of reality" with the "necessary existence". Rather, the explanatory power of this account flourishes when we understand it with the support of a mystical worldview in which the truth of existence is unique to the divine essence and other creatures, aspects, manifestations, and appearances are considered to be a single truth. In this case, any reference to "reality" will ultimately be a reference to the same transcendental truth. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30517.html The medical approach to ethics, rooted in Greek philosophy and Galenic medicine, was systematically developed in Islamic civilization by Thābit ibn Sinān ibn Thābit ibn Qurra (d. 365 AH). Using a descriptive‑analytical method and a theological perspective, this article examines the medico‑ethical foundations of his thought based on Tahdhīb al‑Akhlāq. From an Islamic theological viewpoint, moral refinement (tahdhīb) is not merely a psychological process but a spiritual journey toward nearness to God. Thābit ibn Sinān’s system is grounded in three theoretical principles: the influence of bodily temperament (mizāj) on psychic states, the theory of the tripartite soul (rational, irascible, and concupiscent), and the profound interdependence of body and soul. At the core of this framework lies the belief that body and soul form an integrated unity within divine creation; hence, human beings, created for divine vicegerency, require the health of both dimensions to fulfill their purpose, and unilateral treatment remains insufficient.Building on these foundations, Thābit ibn Sinān proposes a three‑stage practical methodology: diagnosis, prevention, and therapy. Diagnosis involves distinguishing manifest from latent moral diseases through symptoms, actions, and analysis of bodily, psychological, and composite causes. Prevention is prioritized over treatment and includes maintaining temperamental balance, disciplining psychic faculties, regulating environmental factors, and guidance by a sincere advisor. Therapy follows the principle of “treating disease with its opposite,”supplemented by gradation, repetition, psychic abstinence, and patient cooperation. This integrated system illustrates the convergence of medicine, ethics, and theology in Islamic civilization and offers valuable insights for contemporary Islamic psychology and applied ethics https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30552.html The study of mystical texts has often been directed toward the pursuit of a single, systematic meaning. Interpreters of these works, especially in the past, have sought—through the methods of classical schools—to extract a fixed and coherent truth from the writings. While this approach has its own value, it also presents limitations, as it does not always allow for an appreciation of the multiple layers of meaning embedded within these texts. In contemporary scholarship, inspired by new theories of meaning, particularly the rhizomatic thought of Deleuze and Guattari, another horizon of interpretation has emerged—one that views the text as a dynamic and polyphonic network. Based on an examination of Ruzbihan Baqli’s works, especially Kashf al-Asrar, it can be shown that the structure of his writing resonates with such a model. His dreams, symbols, and multilayered experiences resist univocal readings, thereby reinforcing the possibility of a networked and plural interpretation. Accordingly, the present study argues that the rhizomatic approach offers a productive tool for engaging with the complexities of texts grounded in lived experience, whose meanings unfold within multilayered and dynamic contexts. The findings suggest that this book displays rhizomatic qualities, thus opening the way for a fresh and innovative reading of his works. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30607.html This study critically re-examines Process Theology’s challenges concerning evil, free will, and creation ex nihilo through Mullā Ṣadrā’s Transcendent Theosophy. Process Theology denies divine omnipotence and creation ex nihilo, reducing God to a partial cause-resulting in irreparable metaphysical flaws. On evil, it commits the compositional fallacy by treating evil as an existential reality that limits God, while Ṣadrā demonstrates evil’s privative nature and its necessity for superior goods within existence’s hierarchical order. On free will, Process Theology reduces divine power to mere persuasion and neglects vertical causality, wrongly making human agency independent of God; Ṣadrā instead situates free will within vertical causality as a manifestation of divine will. On creation, rejecting creation ex nihilo and eternalizing the world violates God’s complete causality and degrades His ontological status. Ṣadrā resolves this by distinguishing essential origination-ontological dependence on God-from temporal origination, thus reconciling creation with cosmic perpetuity. The study concludes that Process Theology’s reductionism stems from ignoring existence’s hierarchical complexity and the vertical Creator-creature relation. In contrast, Transcendent Theosophy, through substantial motion, gradation of existence, and causal hierarchy, offers coherent resolutions that preserve divine omnipotence, uphold human freedom, and provide a wise theodicy without metaphysical reductionism. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30773.html Here is the precise academic translation of your text: The glad tidings of the Old and New Testaments regarding the advent of the Seal of the Prophets (PBUH) have always served as one of the fundamental pillars for proving the authenticity of Islam in comparative theology and interfaith polemics. However, the emergence of skeptical views from revisionist Orientalist currents, which undermine the historical authenticity of these prophecies, has redoubled the necessity for a critical rereading and scholarly defense of the theological foundations of Islam. The present study seeks to answer this fundamental question: Upon what assumptions is the reductionist approach of John Wansbrough and Patricia Crone based in their encounter with the prophetic glad tidings (*testimonia*) of the Two Testaments, and what are the historical and theological shortcomings of these claims? Employing a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, this research investigates the views of these two Orientalists and evaluates their claims by relying on foundational Islamic texts. The findings of the research indicate that: 1. By ignoring the theological perspicacity and authentic faith-driven motivations of early Muslims, Wansbrough and Crone have reductionistically interpreted the prophetic glad tidings merely as belated, instrumental constructs intended for political legitimization. 2. Wansbrough’s claim that the Muslims’ utilization of concepts such as lexical matching, the application of *Abjad* calculations (gematria), and polemical techniques indicates retrospective borrowings, stands in contradiction to explicit Quranic and Hadith evidence regarding the alteration (*tahrif*) of sacred texts. 3. The ident https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30824.html This study comparatively examines the concept of awe (haybat) as one of the most fundamental dimensions of religious experience in the thought of Rudolf Otto (1869–1937), German theologian and phenomenologist of religion, and Rūzbihān Baqlī Shīrāzī (522–606 AH / 1128–1209 CE), Persian mystic and thinker. Employing an analytical-comparative approach based on the analysis of primary theological and mystical texts, this research investigates the conceptual structure of awe in two distinct intellectual traditions. The findings reveal that in both systems of thought, awe possesses a dual structure of attraction and repulsion; however, its epistemological status, mystical function, and mode of realization differ between the two traditions. For Otto, awe constitutes one dimension of the unified experience of the “numinous,” manifested in the paradoxical combination of mysterium tremendum et fascinans, simultaneously evoking fear and fascination in a single moment. In contrast, for Rūzbihān, awe exists within a dynamic dialectic with expansion (inbisāṭ), and the seeker, oscillating between these two poles, arrives at the experience of wonder (ḥayrat) and ultimately at knowledge. This study demonstrates that wonder in both intellectual systems is not merely a psychological state but rather an epistemological structure in the experience of the sacred, arising from the experience of awe. From this perspective, the comparison of Otto’s and Rūzbihān’s thought reveals that the experience of awe, despite traditional and conceptual differences, shares a common structure in expressing humanity’s encounter with the transcendent. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30856.html Addressing the relationship between the divine essence and attributes in Islamic philosophy, Imāmī philosophers and theologians have predominantly adopted the "theory of identity" (ʿayniyyat al-dhāt wa al-ṣifāt) and offered various arguments in its support. The primary motivation behind this position is to safeguard divine simplicity and avoid introducing multiplicity or composition into the divine essence. However, by neglecting a crucial epistemological dimension of the problem, this view faces a serious challenge: explaining how multiple, semantically distinct divine attributes can be abstracted from a single, absolutely simple essence. Employing an analytical method, this study formulates this problem under the title "The Incompatibility of the Theory of Identity with the Principle of Abstraction." The principle of abstraction is articulated in the works of Muslim philosophers in two distinct forms: primary and secondary. The results of this study show that: first, the theory of identity is logically incompatible with the secondary principle of abstraction; and second, since the composition of the divine essence and attributes constitutes a metaphysical (rather than physical) composition, the distinction of the divine attributes from the divine essence does not entail the ontological dependence of the divine essence and, therefore, is not incompatible with its absolute necessity. https://coth.ui.ac.ir/article_30865.html Gagné’s nine-step model is regarded as a comprehensive instructional design model grounded in activating prior knowledge, guiding the learning process, and providing continuous feedback; however, its application to the teaching of Arabic syntax, particularly in a comparative format, has received little attention. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of this model in teaching Arabic syntax to Iranian and Iraqi theology students at Farhangian University of Isfahan and Mustansiriyah University, and to compare it using a mixed (quantitative-qualitative) approach. The statistical population consisted of 200 undergraduate theology students (100 Iranian and 100 Iraqi), and the research instrument was a researcher-made 27-item questionnaire on a five-point Likert scale, whose content validity (CVR > 0.78) and reliability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 for Iranians and 0.84 for Iraqis) were confirmed. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, one-sample t-tests, and independent t-tests in SPSS-26, while qualitative data were examined through inductive content analysis. The findings indicate a high level of effectiveness of the model in both groups (4.22 for Iranians and 4.10 for Iraqis; p < 0.001). The “providing feedback” and “stimulating recall of prior learning” stages received the highest scores, while the “gaining attention” stage received the lowest. Significant differences between the groups were observed only in the “eliciting performance/guiding learning” stage (t = 2.04, p < 0.05) and the “enhancing retention and transfer” stage (t = 2.90, p < 0.01). Consequently, Gagné’s instructional model demonstrates high .